Серия «Учебники и учебные пособия»

И.П. Агабекян

АНГЛИЙСКИЙ

ДЛЯ СРЕДНИХ

СПЕЦИАЛЬНЫХ

ЗАВЕДЕНИЙ

Рекомендовано Министерством образования

Российской Федерации в качестве учебною пособия

для студентов образовательных учреждений

среднего профессионального образования

Ростов-на-Дону «ФЕНИКС»

Рецензент: кандвдат филологических наук В. С. Шведова Консультант издания Т.Ф.Повалюхина

Агабекян И.П.

А23 Английский для средних специальных заведений. Серия «Учебники и учебные пособия». Ростов н/Д: «Феникс», 2001. — 320 с.

Учебное пособие соответствует образовательному стандарту средних специальных заведений. Содержит вводный курс фонетики, основной повторительный курс грамматики, закрепляющие упражнения, устные темы и тексты для чтения.

Для студентов средних специальных заведений.

ISBN 5-222-01564-5

ББК 81.2Анг-923

Содержание

ОТ АВТОРА-- 4

ВВОДНЫЙ ФОНЕТИЧЕСКИЙ КУРС-- 4

ОСОБЕННОСТИ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ПРОИЗНОШЕНИЯ-- 4

ПРАВИЛА ЧТЕНИЯ-- 6

Основной курс-- 14

МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ-- 14

ЛИЧНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ-- 14

ПРИТЯЖАТЕЛЬНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ-- 15

УКАЗАТЕЛЬНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ-- 15

ПОРЯДОК СЛОВ В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИИ-- 16

ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ-- 17

ВОЗВРАТНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ-- 17

ЧИСЛИТЕЛЬНЫЕ- 21

МНОЖЕСТВЕННОЕ ЧИСЛО СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНЫХ-- 26

ПРИТЯЖАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ПАДЕЖ СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНЫХ-- 29

НЕОПРЕДЕЛЕННЫЙ И ОПРЕДЕЛЕННЫЙ АРТИКЛИ-- 30

ОБОРОТ there is / there are- 35

СТЕПЕНИ СРАВНЕНИЯ ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫХ И НАРЕЧИЙ-- 43

ОСНОВНЫЕ ТИПЫ ВОПРОСОВ, ИСПОЛЬЗУЕМЫЕ В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ- 51

НЕОПРЕДЕЛЕННЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ SOME, ANY, ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНОЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЕ N0 И ИХ ПРОИЗВОДНЫЕ- 58

ВРЕМЕНА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ГЛАГОЛА-- 60

СОГЛАСОВАНИЕ ВРЕМЕН В ГЛАВНОМ И ПРИДАТОЧНОМ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯХ-- 71

СТРАДАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ЗАЛОГ- 76

МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ И ИХ ЗАМЕНИТЕЛИ-- 79

СЛОЖНОЕ ДОПОЛНЕНИЕ- 84

ПРИДАТОЧНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ УСЛОВИЯ И ВРЕМЕНИ, ДЕЙСТВИЕ КОТОРЫХ ОТНЕСЕНО К БУДУЩЕМУ-- 85

Приложение 1 Тексты для дополнительного чтения-- 106

Приложение 2 Дополнительные тексты для чтения-- 125

ОТ АВТОРА

Перед Вами учебное пособие, рассчитанное на 4 семестра работы в колледжах и средних специальных учебных заведениях. Пособие также может быть использовано на подготовительных курсах и факультетах дополнительного образования, а также для самостоятельного обучения. Главная цель пособия — развить у учащихся навыки чтения и перевода, извлечения, обработки и передачи информации на английском языке, а также — подготовить к экзаменам по английскому языку.

Пособие состоит из вводного курса, содержащего коррективный курс фонетики (с правилами чтения букв и буквосочетаний), основного повторительного курса грамматики (в соответствии с требованиями программы по английскому языку для колледжей и средних специальных учебных заведений) и приложений.

Каждый урок основного курса содержит кратко изложенный грамматический материал по обязательным разделам с закрепляющими упражнениями. В уроки включены тексты для чтения и перевода, являющиеся также и полно изложенными устными темами, которые требуются на вступительном экзамене в вузах. Так, рассматриваются такие обязательные школьные темы, как: About myself, My working day, My day off, My friend, Travelling, Great Britain, London.

Тексты в Приложении 1 (My Favourite Writer, цикл страноведческих тем— Moscow, USA, Russian Federation и др.) предназначены для классного и внеаудиторного чтения, развития навыков работы со словарем и передачи содержания на английском языке, а также для подготовки к вступительным экзаменам.

Приложение 2 можно использовать для аудиторных и внеаудиторных занятий по английскому языку, для дополнительного и самостоятельного чтения.

Пособие завершает Приложение 3, содержащее список наиболее употребительных наречий и таблицу неправильных глаголов.

Good luck!

ВВОДНЫЙ ФОНЕТИЧЕСКИЙ КУРС

ОСОБЕННОСТИ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ПРОИЗНОШЕНИЯ

В результате сложного исторического развития английского языка и системы его письменности возникло значительное расхождение между написанием слова и его произношением. Это привело к системе специальной записи звукового образа слова — фонетической транскрипции. Знание знаков транскрипции — это ключ к правильному чтению и произношению слова.

Транскрипционные значки звуков заключаются в квадратные скобки:

а) гласные

[i:] — долгий

й [i] — краткий, открытый и

[е] — э в словах этот, экий

[ге] — более открытый, чем э

[а:] — долгий, глубокий a

[о] — краткий, открытый о

[э:] — долгий о

[о] — закрытый, близкий к у звук о

[и] — краткий у со слабым округлением губ

[и:] — долгий у без сильного округления губ

[л] — краткий гласный, приближающийся к русскому а в словах варить, бранить

[з] — безударный гласный, напоминающий русский безударный гласный в словах: нужен, молоток

[э:] — в русском отсутствует, средний между о и э,

б) двугласные (дифтонги)

[ei] — эй

[оu] — оу

[ai] — аи

[аu] —- ау

[oi] — ой

[iэ] — иа

[еэ] — эа

[ua] — уа

в) согласные

[р]-п

[b]-б

[m] — м

[w] — звук, образующийся с положением губ, как при б, но с маленьким отверстием между губами, как при свисте

[9] (без голоса)

оба звука образуются при помощи языка, кончик которого помещается между передними зубами как в шепелявом русском з

[9] (с голосом)

[t] — т, произнесенное не у зубов, а у десен

[d] — д, произнесенное не у зубов, а у десен

[n]-н

[г] — звук произносится без вибрации кончика языка в отличие от русского р

[J] — мягкий русский ш

[з] — мягкий русский ж в слове вожжи — озвонченный ч

[к] - к

[rj] — заднеязычный н, произнесенный задней частью

спинки языка

[h] — простой выдох

[0] — о

Некоторые английские согласные имеют двойное чтение, сочетания двух согласных могут передавать один согласный звук, а 6 гласных букв передают 20 гласных звуков в зависимости от положения гласной в слове (ударное или неударное) и от типа слога (открытый или закрытый).

Рекомендуется выучить три основных правила произношения английских слов:

1.Краткость или долгота гласных звуков в русском языке не влияет на смысл слова. В английском же языке долгота или краткость произнесенного гласного звука меняет смысл слова. Так, [Jip] — корабль, а tfi:p] — овца.

2.В отличие от русского языка в английском языке согласные звуки не оглушаются в конце слова. Оглушение согласных отражается на смысле слова. Например: [Ьǽg] — сумка, [Ьǽg к] — спина.

3.Гласная буква е в конце слова не читается. Чтение гласной буквы в английском языке зависит от ее положения в слове (ударное или неударное) и от типа слога (открытый или закрытый).

ПРАВИЛА ЧТЕНИЯ

Правила чтения букв а, е, I, о, и, у и их сочетаний

Чтение гласных букв а, е, i, о, и, у зависит от

1. типа слога, в котором они стоят

2. утдрные они или безударные

3. от того, какие буквы стоят впереди или позади них

Типы слогов

I	I	II
Открытый	Условно-открытый	Закрытый
Слог оканчивается на гласную	Слог оканчивается на согласную, за которой следует непроизносимая буква е	Слог оканчивается на одну или несколько согласных
he, she, me	make, note, time	sit, but, test

Правила чтения гласных а, е, \, о, о, у в ударных и безударных слогах

	Типы слога
	I	II	III	IV
Гласные	открытый ударный тип слога	закрытый ударный тип слога	гласная+г ударный тип слога	гласная+г+е ударный тип слога	безударный слог
Аа	[ei] plate	[ǽ] lamp	[a:] car	[еэ] share	[e] ago
Ее	[i:] we	[е] ten	[a:] her	[is] here	[э] [i] absent forest
Yy	[ai] fine byte	[ I ] bit mystic	[e] girl	[aia] fire tyre	[i] music copy
Uu	tube	[A] cut	[e:] turn	[jus] cure	[Э] [ju:] success unite
Оо	[ou] bone	[Э] not	[o:] short	[o:] more	[Э] [OU] confer retro

Правила чтения буквосочетаний Сочетания согласных

Буквосочетание		Звук	Пример
ch		[tf]	chair
sh		[tj]	she
th		[9]	thin
th		[9]	this
wh wh		[w] [h]	what who
ng		[0]	long
ck		[k]	lock
Непроизносимые согласные
Буквосочетание	Произношение		Пример
igh	[ai]		high light
kn	[n]		know
wr	[r]		write
gn	[n]		sign

Звуки [i], [i:]

Гласный звук [i]

При произнесении краткого гласного звука [i] кончик языка находится у основания нижних зубов: оттенок русского звука И в словах шить, шило практически совпадает с английским [i]: it, sit, in

Гласный звук [i:]

При произнесении долгого гласного [i:] язык продвинут вперед, кончик языка касается нижних зубов, губы несколько растянуты и слегка обнажают зубы. Оттенок русского звука [и] в словах ива, иго, игры, избы практически совпадает с английским звуком [i:].

Сочетания ее, еа читаются [i:]. Например, meet, peat.

Долгота звука влияет на лексическое значение слова.

Например: feet (ноги) — fit (вмещаться), steel (сталь) — still (все еще)

Exercise A

lead — lid if — it — tip — kit

did — bill mill — meal

pill — peel keel — kill

sit — seat

Exercise В

did — deed pit — peat

fit — feet it — eat

lid — lead

Exercise С

bin — bean beat — bin

sit — seat steel — still

feel — fill — feet — fit — eat — bean simple — Pete — feel — peel - meet — meat— ill — bill — steel — feel

Exercise D

be — been — bean me — meet — meat

see — seat — seed meal — seal — mean

pea — Pete — peat sea — see — meet

bee — been — feet mean — lean — keen

Exercise E

I see a sea. I see lean meat. I eat meat. I like meat.

I like tea. I make tea. I take tea. I like fine tea. I like fine meals.

Звуки [е], [ae]

Гласный звук [е]

При произнесении гласного [е] масса языка находится в передней части ротовой полости. Кончик языка находится у нижних зубов. Губы слегка растянуты. Звук близок к русскому звуку [э] в словах эти, жесть.

Гласный звук [эг]

При произнесении звука [эг] губы несколько растянуты, нижняя челюсть сильно опущена, кончик языка касается нижних зубов, а средняя спинка языка немного выгибается вперед и кверху.

Exercise A

am — Ann — lamp man — can — cat

sat — hat — bat Pat — rat — cam

Exercise В

tan — ten pan — pen

bad — bed land — lend

tanned — tent fan — fen

man — men pat — pet

Exercise С

bat — bet pet-net-red

let — met ten — pen — men — hen

Звуки [а:], [^], [зэ], [ei]

Гласный звук [a:]

При произнесении английского гласного [а:] рот отрыт почти как для русского звука, но язык отодвигается дальше назад и книзу и лежит плоско. Кончик языка оттянут от нижних зубов. Губы не растянуты и не выдвинуты вперед.

Гласный звук [л]

При произнесении звука язык несколько отодвинут назад, задняя спинка языка приподнята к передней части мягкого неба, губы слегка растянуты. Звук похож на русский предударный звук [а] в словах: какой, посты, басы.

Гласный звук [еэ]

Ядро звука — гласный похожий на русский звук в слове это. Скольжение происходит в направлении нейтрального гласного [э] с оттенком звука а.

Гласный звук [ei]

Дифтонг, ядром которого является гласный, а скольжение происходит в направлении гласного. Произнося дифтонг необходимо следить затем, чтобы ядро не было таким широким, как русский гласный [э], а второй элемент не превращался в русский звук [й].

Exercise A

саг — far — bar half — calf — bath

part — park — fart cart — barter — shark

spark — bath — mark park — raft — plant

Exercise В Mary — air — pair care — dare — rare fare — fair — hair

Exercise С

tape — hate — bate mate — plate — Kate

late — fate — rate brave — maple — main

pain — name — day date — may — pay

lay — hay — Ray . '" .

Звуки [u:], [u], [л]

Гласный звук [ш]

При произнесении долгого гласного звука [и:] губы напряжены и сильно округлены, но гораздо меньше выдвинуты вперед, чем при русском звуке у: moon.

На письме передается буквосочетанием двойное О, за исключением случаев перед буквой k.

Например: soon — скоро, вскоре, moon — луна

Исключение: book — книга, краткое [и].

Гласный звук [и]

При произнесении краткого гласного звука [и] губы заметно округлены, но не выдвинуты вперед, язык оттянут назад, но несколько меныпк, чем для и: (и долгого). Звук напоминает безударный русский звук [у] в словах пустой, тупой, произнесенный без выдвижения губ вперед:

hook — крюк look — взгляд

Запомните слова, в которых в качестве исключения произносится [u]:

Put -— класть, pull тянуть, ри; толкать.

full -- полный

Гласный звук [л]

При произведении краткого гласного [л] губы немножко растянуты, язык отодвинут назад, несколько глубже, чем для русского звука [А]. Кончик языка находится у нижних зубов, напоминает русский звук [а] в словах камыш, сады, валы.

Exercise A

too — tooth — food boot — fool — foot

soon — spoon — tooth boot — mood — shook

Exercise В

took — shook — nook

hook — look — cook

Exercise С

fool — pool — hook fool — too — book cook — boot — loop foot — cool— mood shook — soon — spoon — moon

Exercise D

pull (тянуть) — pool (бассейн) tool (инструмент) — full (полный) soon (вскоре)— sun (солнце) [sAn]!

Exercise E

us — bus tub — mud

must — sum humble — tumble

sun — hunt trust — lust

Звуки [о:], [о], [ou]

Гласный звук [э:] — долгий гласный

Для того, чтобы правильно произнести звук, следует придать органам речи положение, как при произнесении звука а:, затем значительно округлить губы и несколько выдвинуть их вперед.

Гласный звук [о]

Для того, чтобы произнести, следует исходить из положения органов речи при произнесении звука [а:], затем слегка округлить губы и произнести краткий звук[э].

Гласный звук [ou]

Звук представляет собой нечто среднее между русскими звуками [о] и [э]. Губы при произнесении начала этого дифтонга слегка растянуты и округлены. Скольжение происходит в направлении гласного [и].

Exercise A
more — score	— poor	floor -	— for —	- form
dawn — hawk	— because	fork —	- pork -	— sport

Exercise В

not — top — hot Rostov-on-Don dot — mop — mob

Exercise С

tone — note — smoke cone — loan — moan

code — hope — cope lobe — mould — gold

boat — soap — coat

Звуки [ia], [ai], [h]

Дифтонг [1э]

Ядро звука — гласный [i], а скольжение происходит в направлении нейтрального гласного, имеющего оттенок звука [л].

Дифтонг [ai]

Ядро дифтонга — гласный звук, похожий на русский звук [а] в слове чай. Скольжение происходит в направлении звука [i], однако его образование полностью не достигается, в результате чего слышится лишь начало звука [i].

Согласный звук [h]

Этого звука в русском языке нет. В английском языке он встречается только перед гласным и на слух представляет собой легкий, едва слышный выдох. В отличие от русского [х] английский [h] образуется без всякого участия языка, поэтому необходимо следить за тем, чтобы задняя спинка языка не поднималась близко к мягкому нёбу.

Exercise A

year — hear — ear here — near — fear

tear — peer — beer rear — leer — mere

Exercise В

mile — pile — kite site — side — rid.

height — light — fight might — right — tight pike — hike — hide

Exercise С

hope — heap — hat heal — heel — heal

health — height — hear hood — his — ham her — here — hate

Exercise D

hit — heat — head hall — hollow — hammer

hand — happy — hard

Звуки [9], [3]

Согласный звук [9]

В русском языке подобного звука нет. Звук [9] — глухой. При его произнесении язык распластан и не-

напряжен, кончик языка образует узкую плоскую щель, неплотно прижимаясь к нему. В эту щель с силой проходит струя воздуха. Кончик языка не должен сильно выступать за верхние зубы или слишком плотно прижиматься к губам. Зубы должны быть обнажены, особенно нижние, так, чтобы нижняя губа не касалась верхних зубов и не приближалась к ним.

Согласный звук [9]

При произнесении звука [9] органы речи занимают такое же положение, как и при произнесении звука [0]. Звук [9] отличается от звука [9] только звонкостью.

Exercise A

through — fifth — myth thief — booth — tooth thank — think — thought theatre — theory — theft

Exercise В

thermometer — thick — thin thirst — thirty — thorough threat — three — thunder threw — throat — thumb faith — hearth — path bath — booth — broth

Exercise С

this — that — those there — though — these them — they — the

Звуки [w], [n]

Согласный звук [w]

При произнесении губы округлены и значительно выдвинуты вперед, а задняя часть языка занимает примерно такое же положение, как при произнесении русского [у]. Струя выдыхаемого воздуха с силой проходит через образованную между губами круглую щель. Губы энергично раздвигаются.

Согласный звук [13]

При произнесении согласного задняя спинка языка смыкается с опущенным мягким небом, и воздух проходит через носовую полость. Для того, чтобы добиться нужного положения органов речи, можно сделать вдох через нос с широко открытым ртом, затем следить за тем, чтобы ни кончик языка, ни его передняя и средняя часть не касались нёба.

Exercise A

what — why — where whip — wheat — while

Exercise В

war — wharf — water wedding — wage — wait

waitress — waist — waist weather — woman — wind

Exercise С

wall — wallet — walk walnut — waltz — won

Exercise D

wing — king — ping

sing — nothing — something

nothing — anything — ring

Звуки [аи], [dr], [br], [gr], [tr], [fr], [9r]

Exercise A

now — how — brown

out — now — house

louse — mouse — cows out — loud — without

Exercise В

draw — dribble — draft drag — drab — drank drain — dragon — drama drape — dreadful — drugs Dresden — dress — dry drill — drop — drink drive — drown — drum drift — drier — droopy

Exercise С

brown — bread — brace brain — brakes — bran brunch — branch — brave Brazil — breach — breast breath — broth —breathe

Exercise D

treasure — trainer — trench track — trade — traffic troops — trend — trail translate — transmit — trance

Exercise E

France — French — fruit fry — frame — free three — thread — throat threat — through — thrill thirty — throne — threaten

ENGLISH ALPHABET (Английский алфавит)
Буква	Название	Буква	Название
Аа	[ei]	Nn	[en]
Bb	[bi:]	Oo	[ou]
Сс	[Si:]	Pp	[Pi:]
Dd	[di:]	Qq	[kju:]
Ее	И	Rr	Ш
Ff	[efj	Ss	[es]
Gg		Tt	[ti:]
Hh	[eitj]	U-u	[ju=]
Ii	[ai]	V-v	[vi:]
Jj	[*ei]	Ww	['dAblju:]
Kk	[kei]	X-x	[eks]
LI	[elj	Yy	[wai]
M m	[em]	Zi	[zed]

Основной курс

МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ

(The pronouns)

Местоимения употребляются в предложении вместо имени существительного или имени прилагательного. Местоимение называет людей, предметы или признаки уже упомянутые ранее.

Например: Peter gave Kate a book. She took it.

Петя дал Кате книгу. Она ее взяла.

You have a good dictionary. I want to buy such a dictionary.

У вас хороший словарь. Я хочу купить такой словарь.

Boy, woman, this, what, car, they и др. — все это слова.

Слова, обозначающие людей: boy, woman, teacher, baby и др.

Вопросительное слово who относится к словам, обозначающим людей.

Вопросительное слово what относится к словам, обозначающим вещи.

Однако, обратите внимание:

Who is he? Кто он? (как его зовут) Не is Mr Johnson..

What is he? Кто он?(по профессии) Не is a teacher.Слова, обозначающие мужчин (man, boy, son, husband, king), относятся к мужскому роду и заменяются местоимением he (он), относящимся к муж. р. (ед. ч.):

Не is a boy. He is a son. He is a king.

Слова, обозначающие женщин ^fgirl, woman, daughter, queen) относятся к женскому роду и заменяются местоимением she (она), относящимся к женск. р. (ед. ч.):

She is a girl. She is a daughter. She is a queen.

. Слова, обозначающие вещи (table, chair, book, clock) относятся к среднему роду, и заменяются местоимением it относящимся к ср.р. (ед.ч.): It is a book. It is a picture. It is an apple.

Местоимение they (они) относится ко всем трем родам (мн.ч.):

They are boys. They are daughters. They are apples.

ЛИЧНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ

(Personal pronouns)

Единственное число Множественное число

I (я) we (мы)

you (ты), you (вы),

he (он), she (она), it (оно) they (они)

Личные местоимения в английском имеют два падежа:

именительный падеж (the nominative case) объектный падеж (the objective case), заменяющий собой все падежи русского.

Склонение личных местоимений

Число

Лицо

Именительный падеж

Объектный падеж

Ед.

1(я) you (ты)

he (он) she(она) it (оно)

те (мне) you (тебе) him (ему) her (ей) it (ему) неодуш.

Мн.

1 2 3

we (мы) you (вы) they (они)

us(нам) you (вам) them (им)

Примечание. После местоимения you глагол-сказуемое всегда стоит во множественном числе. You are a student. Ты студент.

ПРИТЯЖАТЕЛЬНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ

(Possessive pronouns)

Единственное число Множественное число

ту (мой, моя, мое, мои) our (наш, наша, наше, наши)

уонг (твой, твоя, твое, твои) your (ваш, ваша, ваше, ваши) his (его), her (ее), its (его) their (их)

Притяжательные местоимения имеют две формы: основную и абсолютную.

Формы притяжательных местоимений

Число

Лицо

Основная форма (перед существительным)

Абсолютная форма (без существительного)

Ед.

Mу

your

his her its

Mine

Yours

His hers its

Мн.

Our

Your

their

Ours

Yours

theirs

Основная форма употребляется в тех случаях, когда за притяжательным местоимением стоит существительное.

This is my book and that is your book. Это моя книга, а то твоя книга.

Абсолютная форма употребляется в тех случаях, когда за притяжательным местоимением не.стоит существительное.

This is my book and that is yours. It is not mine. Это моя книга, а то твоя. Она не моя.

УКАЗАТЕЛЬНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ

(Demonstrative pronouns)

This (этот, эта, это), that (тот, та, то), such (такой, такая, такое, такие).

Указательные местоимения this и that имеют единственное и множественное число.

Единственное число Множественное число

this(этот, эта, это) these(эти)

that(тот,та,то) those (те)

Запомните: thisis— these are that"is-.-— those are. there-is — there are it is— they are

This is my house and that is yours.

Это мой дом, а то — твой.

These are my books. Take those books.

Эти книги мои. Возьми те книги.

Указательное местоимение such имеет одну неизменяемую форму. I like such books. Мне нравятся такие книги.

Задание 1.1. Напишите по-английски.

Моя книга, ее ручка, наша комната, его собака, ваш портфель, их комната, твоя машина.

Задание 1.2. Переведите на английский язык:

l.Ta книга — не моя. 2. Эта книга — моя. 3. Это — моя книга, а то — его. 4. Это ее карандаши, а те — мои. 5. Возьми те карандаши. 6. Я люблю такие ручки, они хорошие. 7. Ваша ручка плохая, возьмите мою.

Задание 1.3. Замените выделенные слова личными местоимениями.

1. Peter helped the pupils to translate the text. 2. Mother asked Mary to wash the plates. 3. My friend writes a letter to his sister. 4. Jane took 3 books from the library (there). 5. His cousins live in Moscow. 6. Our grandfather and grandmother will come tomorrow. 7. Mary works in a shop.

Задание 1.4. Переведите на русский язык.

This is a pen and that is a pencil. These are tables and those are chairs.

This is a plate and that is a lamp. This is a bed and that is a sofa.

This is a cap and that is a hat. This is my book and that is your copybook.

This is my house and that is yours. That house is mine.

ПОРЯДОК СЛОВ В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИИ

В английском предложении каждый член предложения, как правило, имеет свое определенное место.Так, в простом распространенном повествовательном предложении на первом месте стоит подлежащее, за ним следует

1)сказуемое, далее идет

2)дополнение (беспредложное, прямое, предложное) и затем

3)обстоятельства (образа действия, места, времени).

1) J 2) gave 3) my brother 3) a book 4) yesterday.

Задание 1.5. Составьте и напишите предложения, обращая внимание на порядок с. сов.

1. Is, best, she, friend, my.

2. Learn, different, students, our, subjects.

3. The, is, Russia, of, the, in, country, the, largest, world.

4. In, the, we, city, live, a, flat, in, of, center, the.

5. Reading, is, my, of, best, son's, fond, friend.

ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ

Эти местоимения употребляются для построения вопросительного предложения.

Who (кто)

Who is this man? Кто этот человек?

What (что, какой, какая, какое, какие)

What is it? Что это такое?

What book is it? Какая это книга?

Whose (чей)

Whose pencil is it? Чей это карандаш?

Which (который)

'Which of these books is yours? Которая из этих книг твоя?

Местоимение who имеет два падежа: именительный падеж who и объектный падеж whom (кому, кого).

Who is here? Кто здесь? Местоимение who стоит в именительном падеже, является подлежащим.

Whom do you see there? Кого ты там видишь? Whom did you give my book? Кому ты дал мою книгу? Местоимение whom стоит в объектном падеже, является дополнением.

Задание 2.5. Переведите на русский язык.

Whose pencil is it? — This (it) is my pencil.

Who is this man? — This man is our teacher. What books are these? — These are good books. Whose pencil is it? — It is hers. Which of these books is ours? — They are all yours. Who is here? — All pupils are here.

ВОЗВРАТНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ

В английском языке возвратные местоимения образуются от личных:

I — myself we — ourselves

you — yourself you — yourselves

she — herself they — themselves

he —himself it — itself

Возвратное местоимение oneself образуется от неопределенного местоимения one.

Возвратные местоимения употребляются в предложении для того, чтобы сказать, что предмет, названный подлежащим предложения,

(а) сам совершает действие или

(б) сам совершает действие и испытывает его на себе.

Как правило, они переводятся глаголом с частицей -сь (-ся), которая присоединяется к глаголам. Например:

They washed and dressed themselves.

Они умылись и оделись. Do it yourself.

Сделайте это сами. Do not cut yourself!

He порежьтесь!

Задание 2.6. Употребите нужное возвратное местоимение:

1. I shall ask him.... 2. Не wants to do it.... 3. She washed.... 4.You will answer the letter.... 5.1 looked at... in the mirror. 6. We shall tell her.... 7. They have done the task.... 8. She doesn't like to speak about.... 9. The story... is very good, but not the translation. 10. Children, doit....

Задание 2.7. Переведите на английский язык:

1. Утром я умываюсь и одеваюсь. 2. Идите домой сами. 3. Читайте книгу сами. 4. Не пораньтесь!. 5. Они ходят в школу сами. 6. Причешитесь! (comb).

Повелительное наклонение выражает приказ, просьбу или запрет на совершение действия. Предложение обычно начинается глаголом-сказуемым в форме инфинитива без частицы to.

Например: Take this book. Возьмите эту книгу.

Don't take this book. He берите эту книгу.

Задание 2.8. Попросите (прикажите) по-английски:

1. идти домой 2. дать вам ваш карандаш; 3. дать ей ручку 4. не давать ей эту книгу 5. не брать вашу ручку 6. говорить по-английски

Задание 2.9. Прочтите, переведите и выполните действия.

1. Take the book. 2. Open it. 3. Give me the book. 4. Bring (принеси) him the book. 5. Look (посмотри) at the book. 6. Open these books and do not close them.

Задание 2.10. Попросите (прикажите) по-английски:

1. Дайте мне эту книгу. 2. Принесите нам ту ручку. 3. Дайте ему эти карандаши. 4. Откройте эту книгу и читайте текст. 5. Говорите по-английски, пожалуйста. 6. Не говорите по-русски, пожалуйста (do not). 7. Закройте книгу и принесите ее мне. 8. Не открывайте это окно, пожалуйста.

Спряжение глагола to be

Число	Утвердительная форма	Вопросительная форма	Отрицательная форма
	Настоящее время (Present Indefinite)
Ед.	I am. You are. He (she, it) is.	Ami? Are you? Is he (she, it)?	I am not. You are not. He (she, it) is not.
Мн.	We (you, they) are.	Are we (you, they)?	We (you, they) are not.
	Прошедшее время (Past Indefinite)
Ед.	I (he, she, it) was. You were.	Was I (he, she, it)? Were you?	I (he, she, it) was not. You were not.
Мн.	We (you, they) were.	Were we (you, they)?	We (you, they) were not.
	Будущее время (Future Indefinite)
Ед.	I shall be. You (he, she, it) will be.	Shall I be? Will you (he, she, it) be?	I shall not be. You (he, she, it) will not be.
Мн.	We shall be. You (they) will be.	Shall we be? Will you (they) be?	We shall not be. You (they) will not be.

Сокращения

I am—I'm we are — we're

we are not — we aren't

you are — you're they are — they're

you are not — you aren't they are not — they aren't

he is — he's

he is not — he isn't

she is — she's

she is not — she isn't

it is — it's

it is not — it isn't

Задание 2.11. Прочтите, переведите и перепишите, используя, где возможно, сокращения.

I am a student. Am I a student? Yes, you are.

We are students. Are we students? Yes, we are.

He is a doctor. Is he a doctor? No, he is not. He is not a doctor.

Are you doctors? Yes, you are. You are doctors.

She is a teacher. They are teachers. He is a teacher.

It is a dog. Is it a dog? Yes, it is.

Ann is a first-year student. She has a book. She has an English book. Her book is good. It is interesting.

I am a first-year student, too. But I have no English book.

Has Pete an English book? No, he has not.

Have you an English book? No, I have not. I have not a good English book. My English book is old.

Задание 2.12. Письменно поставьте предложения в вопросительную форму и дайте краткие утвердительные или отрицательные ответы.

Образец: She is his sister. Is she his sister? Yes, she is. No, she isn't.

1. My father is a worker. 2. He is an engineer now. 3. These children are little. 4. You are my best friend .5. Your daughter is a pupil. 6. I am a student. 7. They are good boys. 8. Our mother is a teacher.

Задание 2.13. Составьте предложения из данных слов.

1. Have, no, book, I. 2. They, no, good, have, room. 3. Have, yes, I. 4. Room, Ann, a, has. 5. Pen, has, a, she? 6.Little, dog, our, is. 7. Is, pencil, his, old. 8. Lamp, is, good, her? 9. Book, give, please, me, your. 10. Bag, good, is, my.

Задание 2.14. Заполните пропуски нужной формой глагола to be и переведите.

1. Не... born in 1985. 2. We... students now. 3. We... good friends at the college. 4. It... an interesting book. 5. Who... absent today? 6. He... a student. 7. What... he? 8.... he a doctor? 9. These... my pencils. 10. Where... this book? It... on the table. 11. What... their names? 12. Mary... a girl. 13. Who... he? 14. What... you? 15. This man... in the room. 16. How... she? 17. How... you? I... fine. 18. How... your friend? 19.... he your son? 20. Tomorrow we... at home. 21.... you a sportsman? 22. There... no book on the table. 23. It... my parents' car. 24. There... 15 students in our group now.

Задание 2.15. Переведите следующие предложения на английский язык:

1. Она — учитель? — Да. 2. Вы — не дети. Вы — студенты. 3. Они сейчас в классе? — Нет. 4. Кто вы? — Я — студент. 5. Она — мой друг. 6. Он — не доктор. 7. Это мои дети. 8. Что это? Это — новая книга. 9. Где он был на прошлой неделе? 10. Мы — друзья.

Задание 2.16. Вставьте глагол to be в нужной форме:

1. Where ... you from?

2. How old ... you? How old ... your brother?

3. What... your name?

4.1... glad to see you. How ... you?

5. The dog ... in the garden.

6. My parents ...workers.

7. ... your father a teacher? — No, he... a doctor.

8. He ... (not) a student, he ... a doctor

9. That book ... (not) very interesting.

10.The book ... on the table.

11.Moscow ... the capital of Russia.

12.... you students?

13.What... the weather like today?

14.What... on the table?

15.... Boris a good football player?

Задание 2.17. Прочтите и переведите.

TEXT

I am in the college. I have many books. My books are interesting.

Peter and Boris are in the room, too. Look at them. They are near the table. They have a dog. It is their dog. It is good. You are in the room. You have a book in your hand. I am a student. I have many friends. Nick and Pete are students. They have many friends, too.

Ann has ten English books. Have you English books? Yes, I have.

How many English books have you? I have only ten English books.

How many pencils have you got? I have got only five pencils.

How many red pencils has Ann? She has one red pencil. Where is your pencil? It is on the table. Where is Ann? She is at home. Where is Pete? Pete is at the lesson.

ЧИСЛИТЕЛЬНЫЕ

(The Numerals)

Числительные обозначают количество предметов или порядок предметов при счете.

Числительные делятся на количественные, отвечающие на вопрос «сколько?» и порядковые, отвечающие на вопрос «который?».

Количественные числительные от 13 до 19 образуются прибавлением суффикса -teen к основе.

Числительные, обозначающие десятки, имеют суффикс -ty. Порядковые числительные кроме первых трех (first, second, third) образуются прибавлением суффикса -th или -eth к соответствующим количественным числительным. Они всегда употребляются с определенным артиклем.

Количественные числительные	Порядковые числительные
1 one — один	the first первый
2 two — два	the second второй
3 three — три	the third третий
4 four	the fourth
5 five	the fifth
6 six	the sixth
7 seven	the seventh

Количественные числительные			Порядковые числительные
	8 eight		the	eighth
	9 nine		the	ninth
	10 ten		the	tenth
	11 eleven		the	eleventh
	12 twelve		the	twelfth
	13 thirteen		the	thirteenth
	14 fourteen		the	fourteenth
	15 fifteen		the	fifteenth
	16 sixteen		the	sixteenth
	17 seventeen		the	seventeenth
	18 eighteen		the	eighteenth
	19 nineteen		the	nineteenth
	20 twenty		the	twentieth
	Десятки:	Составные		числительные:
20	twenty—the twentieth	twenty-two—the twenty-second
30	thirty — the thirtieth	thirty-three —		- the thirty-third
40	forty — the fortieth	forty-four —		the forty-fourth
50	fifty — the fiftieth	fifty-five — the fifty-fifth
60	sixty — the sixtieth	sixty-six — the sixty-sixth
70	seventy—the seventieth
80	eighty — the eightieth
90	ninety — the ninetieth

Числительные от 100 и больше:

100th — the hundredth 101st — the one hundred and first

200th — the two hundredth 1000th — the thousandth

100— a (one) hundred

101— a (one) hundred and one

200 — two hundred 1000 — (one) thousand

1001 — a (one) thousand and one

5,550 — five thousand five hundred and fifty

5,000,000 — five million

1500 — fifteen hundred

Заметьте, что числительные hundred, thousand, million не имеют окончания -s, когда перед ними стоит другое числительное. Когда числительные обозначают неопределенное количество, они употребляются во множественном числе с окончанием -s, за которым следует предлог of. Сравните:

hundreds of books two hundred books

thousands of books five thousand books millions of people 2 million people

Номера страниц, домов, квартир, транспорта, обозначаются не порядковыми, а количественными числительными. В этих случаях существительные употребляются без артикля: page 15, house 40, flat 13, bus 72.

Задание 3.1. Прочтите по-английски:

1. Количественные числительные:

3, 5,11,12,13, 24, 69, 325,1005, 530425,1.745.033.

2. Порядковые числительные:

1, 2, 15, 23, 84, 149, 150, 208, 1000, 2.000.000.

Как читать даты?

Числительное, обозначающее год, делится на две части — число сотен, а затем— число десятков и единиц.

1900 — nineteen hundred, in (the year) nineteen hundred

2000 — two thousand, in (the year) two thousand

1905 — nineteen five, in (theyear) nineteen five

Даты читаются следующим образом:

April 12, 2001 1) on the twelfth of April, two

thousand one 2) on April the twelfth, two

thousand one

Задание З.2. Напишите цифрами следующие даты:

a) The first of March nineteen seventy-six.

b) The fifth of December two thousand.

c) The sixteenth of May nineteen five.

d) The third of July nineteen hundred, in (the year) nineteen ninety-seven in (the year) nineteen hundred eighty-one in (the year) two thousand five.

Задание 3.3. Напишите по-английски: 1) 7 марта 1999 года; 2) 1 сентября 1974 года; 3) 22 апреля 1911 года; 4) 11 марта 1951 года; 5) 12 декабря 2024 года.

Как читаются дробные числительные?

Простые Десятичные

1/2 — a (one) half; 0.1— O[ou] point one 1/4 — a (one) quarter 2.45 — two point four five 2/3 — two thirds 35.25 — three five (или: thirty-

five) point two five 1.5 — one and a half

Задание З.4. Напишите цифрами дробные числа:

Простые:

1) A (one) half 2) two thirds 3) a (one) quarter 4) three fourths 5) two and a (one) half 6) five and one sixth 7) a (one) fifth.

Десятичные:

1) Zero (nought/ou) point two 2) two point four five 3) four point five 4) three four (thirty four) point one zero two 5) nought point nought one 6) six point three five 7) fifty eight point three nought five.

Для обозначения времени:

Если минутная стрелка (the long hand) находится в правой части циферблата (a face) — используется предлог past.

It' ten past eleven. 10 минут двенадцатого.

It' a quarter past eleven. Четверть двенадцатого.

It's half past eleven. Половина двенадцатого.

Если минутная стрелка находится в левой части циферблата, то используется предлог to.

It's ten to twelve. Без десяти двенадцать.

It's a quarter to twelve. Без четверти двенадцать.

It's twenty minutes to twelve. Без двадцати минут двенадцать.

It is eleven sharp. Ровно одиннадцать.

Время до полудня обозначается a.m. (от лат. ante meridiem), а после полудня p.m. (от лат. post meridiem). Например: 10 a.m. — Десять часов утра. 6 p.m — Шесть часов вечера.

Задание 3.5. Скажите по-английски время:

А) 8.05, 8.10, 8.15, 8.20, 8.25, 8.30

8.35, 8.45, 8.50, 8.55, 9.00

Б)

1. Без двадцати двенадцать.

2. Без четверти три.

3. Половина пятого.

4. Четверть седьмого.

5. Десять минут второго.

6. Ровно двенадцать часов.

Задание 3.6. Скажите, который час?

1. It is eleven sharp. 2. It is five minutes past three. 3. It is ten past two. 4. It is a quarter past twelve. 5. It is three o'clock. 6. It is half past eight. 7. It is twenty five minutes to four. 8. It is three fifteen. 9. It is two thirthy. 10. It is a quarter to nine.

Отрезки времени

second [sekand] — секунда

minute ['minit] — минута

hour ['аиэ] — час

week — неделя

month [тлпб] — месяц

year [ja:] — год

century f'sentjari] — век (столетие)

Дни недели (употребляются с предлогом on)

Monday f'mAndi] — понедельник

Tuesday [tju:zdi] — вторник

Wednesday ['wenzdi] — среда

Thursday [9a:zdi] — четверг

Friday [fraidi] — пятница

Saturday, f'sstadi] — суббота

Sunday [sAndi] — воскресенье Месяцы, (употребляются с предлогом in) January ['dgenjusri] February ['februari] March [ma:tf] April [eipril] May [mei] Junefdfeurn] July [dju'lai] August [o:g3St] September [sep'temba] October [ok'touba] November [no'vemba] December [di'semba]

Времена года (употребляются с предлогом in): spring [sprig] — весна summer [ SAma] — лето autumn ['o:tam] — осень winter [wintsj — зима

Запомните следующие слова и выражения:

a watch — часы (наручные, карманные) a clock — часы (стенные, настольные) an alarm-clock — будильник

My watch is five minutes fast. — Мои часы спешат на 5 минут.

My watch is five minutes slow. — Мои часы отстают на 5 минут.

What day is it today? — Какой сегодня день (недели)?

What date is it today? — Какое сегодня число?

What time is it now? — Который час?

What is the time? — Который час?

Запомните выражения, связанные со временем:

Yesterday — вчера

The day before yesterday — позавчера

Today — сегодня

Tonight — сегодня вечером

Tomorrow — завтра

The day after tomorrow — послезавтра

A fortnight — две недели

from 10 till 12 — с 10 до 12

half an hour — полчаса

10 days ago — 10 дней назад

It's time to... — пора (делать что-либо)

in an hour's time — в течение часа

in time — вовремя (не слишком поздно; так, чтобы успеть)

on time — вовремя (точно по плану)

in the middle of... — в середине

this week (month, year) — на этой неделе (в этом ме сяце, году)

next week — на следующей неделе

last week — на прошлой неделе

Задание 3.7. Скажите время по-английски. It is... 11.30; 20.00; 12.00; 9.10; 8.30; 17.40; 10/15? 10.45; 18.30.

Задание 3.8. Скажите по-английски:

· Который сейчас час? Сейчас ...

· Какое сегодня число? Сегодня...

· Мои часы спешат на 10 минут.

· Зимой, летом, весной, осенью.

· В октябре, в ноябре, в мае, в августе.

· Какой сегодня день (недели)?

· На этой неделе (в этом месяце, году)

· 10 дней назад.

· на прошлой неделе

· с 12 до 14

· две недели назад

Задание 3.9. Переведите на английский язык.

A. 1) 220 дней; 2) 1500 человек; 3) 20545 книг; 4) около 100 страниц; 5) почти 300 тетрадей.

B. 1) первый автобус; 2) вторая страница; 3) миллионный посетитель; 4) часть первая; 5) номер десятый.

C. 1. Два миллиарда человек. 2. Миллионы книг. 3. Триста восемьдесят пять страниц. 4. Двадцать первое декабря 1997 года. 5. Двенадцатое марта 2000 года. 6. Одна четвертая. 7. Три пятых. 8. Ноль целых, двадцать пять сотых. 9. Четыре целых и пять шестых. 10. Две целых, сто пять тысячных.

Задание 3.10. Напишите цифрами:

Fifteen twenty one; 2) the eleventh of March; 3) two fifths; 4) seventeen point four two; 5) eighteen hundred five; 6) a (one) sixth; 7) one tenth; 8) the first of January; 9) sixteen thirty three; 10) nought point two four.

МНОЖЕСТВЕННОЕ ЧИСЛО СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНЫХ

Множественное число существительных = единственное число + s (es)

Множественное число существительных образуется путем прибавления к основе окончания -s: a boy — boys a book — books a pen — pens a girl — girls

Множественное число существительных, основа которых оканчивается на -ch, -s, -ss, -sh, -x, а также существительных, имеющих окончание -о, образуется путем прибавления окончания -es:

a bench скамейка — benches

a bus автобус — buses

a glass стакан — glasses

a box коробка — boxes

a potato картошка — potatoes

Существительные, оканчивающиеся на -у (после согласной) во множественном числе имеют окончание -ies:

a baby младенец — babies

a fly муха — flies a lady леди — ladies

Если слово оканчивается на / (-fe), то во множественном числе / меняется на и и добавляется -(es) a life жизнь — lives a knife нож — knives a shelf полка — shelves a wife жена — wives (но: roof крыша — roofs)

Как читаются окончания во множественном числе?

-s читается как [s] после глухих согласных: books, cats

-s читается как [z] после звонких согласных и гласных: pens, boys

-es читается как [iz] после s, ss, sh, ch, x, z: boxes

-у после согласных переходит в i+es: city — cities, lady — ladies

Ряд существительных образует множественное число не по общим правилам:

а) изменяется корневая гласная: a man мужчина — men

a woman женщина — women a foot нога — feet a tooth зуб — teeth a goose гусь — geese a mouse мышь — mice

б) добавляется окончание -еп: an ох бык — oxen

a child ребенок — children

в) заимствуются формы единственного и множественного числа из латинского и греческого языков: a formula — formulae (formulas) a crisis — crises a criterion — criteria an index — indices a bacterium — bacteria

В английском языке есть существительные, которые имеют одну (общую) форму для единственного и множественного числа:

a deer (олень) — deer (олени)

a sheep (овца) — sheep (овцы)

a fish (рыба) — fish (рыбы)

swine ('свинья) — swine (свиньи)

Некоторые существительные могут употребляться в форме только единственного либо множественного числа.

В единственном числе употребляются неисчисляе-мые существительные, такие как:

Money — деньги

Sugar — сахар

Hair — волосы

Business — дело

Information — информация, сведения

Fruit — фрукты

Progress — прогресс, успехи

News — новость, новости

Peace — мир

Love — любовь

Knowledge — знание, знания

Advice — советы

Furniture — мебель

Luggage — багаж

Только во множественном числе употребляются обозначения предметов, состоящих из двух и более частей:

Trousers — брюки

Glasses — очки

Scissors — ножницы

Shorts — шорты

Только во множественном числе употребляются слова:

Clothes — одежда Goods — товары Riches — богатства Thanks — благодарности Manners — манеры Looks — взгляды

Задание 4.1. Перепишите исчисляемые и неисчис-ляемые существительные в 2 столбика и переведите их.

Time, water, machine, music, snow, word, coffee, money, idea, family, knowledge, sea, hour, tree, silver, meat, happiness, information, speed, book, news, house, friend, milk, student, pen, paper, clothes, picture, air.

Задание 4.2. Напишите следующие существительные во множественном числе.

Box, sheep, place, library, photo, mouse, lady, glasses, bush, dress, country, bus, party, wife, day,jknife, knowledge, month, pen,3iero, goose, company, life, deer, tomato, city, man, play, news, child, fruit, shelf, leaf, foot, fish, woman, money, information.

Задание 4.З. Поставьте следующие существительные во множественное число (обратите внимание на артикли: неопределенный артикль во множественном числе опускается, определенный артикль сохраняется).

the star, a mountain, a tree, a waiter, the queen, a man, the woman, an eye, a shelf, a box, the city, the boy, a, goose, a watch, a mouse, a dress, a toy, a sheep, a tooth, a child, an ox, a deer, the life, a tomato.

Задание 4.4. Поставьте следующие словосочетания во множественное число (обратите внимание на изменения в указательных местоимениях).

this man, that match, this tea-cup, this egg, that wall, that picture, this foot, that mountain, this lady, that window, this knife

Задание 4.5. Поставьте существительные в следующих предложениях во множественное число.

1. A new house is in our street. 2. This story is very interesting. 3. A woman, a man, a boy and a girl are the room. 4. In the farm-yard we see an ox, a sheep, a cow and a goose. 5. Put this knife on that table. 6. Is this worker an Englishman or a German? — He is a Frenchman. 7. What is your name? 8. He keeps his toy in a box. 9. This man works at our office.

Задание 4.6. Поставьте следующие предложения во множественное число произведя нужные изменения.

1. This is my stocking. 2. He has a new suit. 3. The plate was on the table. 4. This town is very large. 5. Is that girl your sister? 6.1 shall give you my book. 7. This story is a good. 8. Is this a good match? 9. The boy put his book on the desk. 10. That house is new. 11. The pupil put his book into the bag. 12. Is this a good student?

ПРИТЯЖАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ПАДЕЖ СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНЫХ

The child's toys — The children's toys The boy's books — The boys' books

Задание 4.7. Употребите притяжательный падеж существительных.

Образец: The poems of Lermontov. (Lermontov'spoems).

1. The toy of their children. 2. The questions of my son. 3. The wife of my brother. 4. The table of our teacher. 5. The life of animals. 6. The voice of this girl. 7. The new book of the pupils. 8. The letter of Peter. 9. The car of my parents. 10 The room of my friend. 11. The handbags of these women. 12. The flat of my sister is large. 13. The children of my brother are at home. 14. The room of the boys is large.

Задание 4.8. Переведите на английский язык, употребляя притяжательный падеж существительных.

1. Это семья моего друга. Отец моего друга инженер. Мать моего друга учитель. 2. Она взяла книги своего брата. 3. Дайте мне тетради ваших учеников. 4. Это книга нашего учителя? 5. Чья это сумка? — Это сумка Петра. 6. Чьи это словари? — Это словари студентов. 7. Возьмите игрушки детей.

Безличные и неопределенно-личные предложения

Английские предложения отличаются от русских тем, что в них всегда есть подлежащее и сказуемое. Поэтому в безличных предложениях, когда нет подлежащего, используется в качестве формального подлежащего местоимение it.

It is cold today. Сегодня холодно.

It rains. Идет дождь

Как видим, безличные предложения такого типа состоят из местоимения it, которое не переводится, глагола-связки в нужном по смыслу времени'и именной части сказуемого, выраженного чаше всего именем прилагательным. Именная часть может быть также выражена именем существительным или именем числительным.

It's nice to meet you. Приятно познакомиться.

It is nine o'clock now. Сейчас девять часов.

Очень часто безличные предложения описывают явление природы, состояние погоды, обозначают время, расстояние.

Вопросительная и отрицательная формы безличных предложений образуются по тем же правилам, что и вопросительные и отрицательные формы предложений с именным составным сказуемым.

Is it cold? — Холодно?

Wasn't it interesting? — Разве это не было интересно?

Isn't it funny? — Разве это не смешно?

Частица not ставится после первого вспомогательного глагола.

Задание 4.9. Переведите на английский язык:

Сегодня холодно. 2. Идет снег целый день. 3. Сейчас утро. 4. Было приятно познакомиться с вашим другом. 5. Поздно. Пора спать. 6. Сейчас уже 10 часов утра. 7. На улице холодно? 8. Сейчас ранняя весна, но уже тепло. 9. Это далеко отсюда?

НЕОПРЕДЕЛЕННЫЙ И ОПРЕДЕЛЕННЫЙ АРТИКЛИ

Неопределенный артикль a (an) происходит от числительного one (один), определенный — от указательного местоимения that (тот).

Артикль употребляется:

— перед каждым нарицательным существительным.

Артикль не употребляется если перед существительным стоит:

· указательное или притяжательное местоимение — This is my book.

· другое существительное в притяжательном падеже — It's teacher's book.

· количественное числительное — She has one pen.

· отрицание по — He has no book.

Упоминая предмет впервые, мы употребляем перед ним неопределенный артикль a(an). Упоминая этот же предмет вторично, мы ставим перед ним определенный артикль the. Например: This is a book. The book is interesting.

Неопределенный артикль a (an)

употребляется перед единичным, отдельным предметом, который мы не выделяем из класса ему подобных. Неопределенный артикль an обычно стоит передсуществительным, которое начинается с гласного звука: an apple, an egg.

Например: / bought a book yesterday. Я купил вчера книгу (одну из многих ей подобных). I have an apple. У меня есть яблоко (одно, какое-то).

Неопределенный артикль a (an) может употребляться то чько с исчисляемыми существительными. стоящими в единственном числе. Перед неисчисляемыми существительными или существительными опускается,

Неопределенный артикль не употребляется:

а) с неисчисляемыми и «абстрактными» существительными:

J like coffee and tea. Friendship is very important in our life.

б) с существительными во множественном числе: The books are on the table.

в) с именами собственными: J told Jane about that.

г) с существительными, перед которыми стоят притяжательные или указательные местоимения:

This car is better than that. That bike is old.

д) с существительными, за которыми следует количественное числительное, обозначающее номер:

Read the text on page eight.

Неопределенный артикль a необходим в конструкциях

I have a... This is a... I am a... What a fine day! I see a... There is a... He is a... What a good boy!

Определенный артикль the

Определенный артикль the выделяет предмет или предметы из класса им подобных:

The book I bought yesterday was interesting — Книга, которую я купил вчера, была интересной (это — конкретная книга, которую говорящий выделяет из класса ей подобных).

Определенный артикль the употребляется как с исчисляемыми, так и с неисчисляемыми существительными, как с единственным, так и с множественным числом.

Например: This is a hook. The book is interesting (исчисляемое в единственном числе).

This is meat. The meat is fresh, (неисчисляемое)

These are books. The books are good, (множественное число).

Определенный артикль употребляется:

а) когда известно (из контекста, из окружающей обстановки) о каком предмете (предметах, явлениях) идет речь: Open the door, please. I am going to the college.

б) когда речь идет о единственном в своем роде предмете или явлении: The moon is bright this night.

в) когда существительное имеет ограничивающее определение, чаще всего с предлогом of.

/ don't know the name of this pupil.

г) в словосочетаниях типа in the north, to the west, at the cinema, the same, in the country, the rest of the...

д) если перед существительным стоит прилагательное в превосходной степени

This is the most interesting book.

Географические названия и артикль

С географическими названиями и с именами собственными, артикль, как правило, не употребляется, кроме следующих случаев:

а) с названиями морей, рек, океанов, горных хребтов, групп островов используется определенный артикль: the Pacific Ocean, the Black Sea, the Thames the British Isles.

б) определенный артикль используется с несколькими названиями стран, областей и городов, (хотя обычно с этими типами названий артикль не используется):

the Ukraine, the Crimea, the Caucasus, the Netherlands, the Hague, the Riviera, the Congo, the West Indies

в) определенный артикль используется с названиями стран типа:

the Russian Federation, the United States of America, the United Kingdom.

г) перед собирательным именем семьи: The Petrovs — Петровы

Запомните: артикль не нужен в сочетаниях со словами next и last типа:

next week, next year, last month, last Tuesday

Задание 5.1. Объясните наличие или отсутствие артикля перед существительными.

1. Last week I met my friend. He was with a young girl. The girl was a student of our Academy. 2. This is a pencil. The pencil is red. 3. She is a teacher. She is our teacher of English. 4. It is a lake. The lake is deep. It's one of the deepest lakes in the world. 5. There are many flowers in your garden. The flowers are beautiful. 6. Did you write a plan? Give me your plan, please. 7. The Black Sea is in the South of Russia. 8. This is Nick. He works as an engineer. He is a good engineer. 9. There are some schools in our street. The schools are new. 10. Yury Gagarin was the first cosmonaut of the world. 11. In summer the sky is blue and the sun shines brightly. 12. The Petrovs are very friendly. 13.This is Ann's book. I don't like such books. 14. Winter begins in December.

Задание 5.2. Вставьте артикли a, an, Ше,где необходимо:

1. This... pencil is broken. Give me that... pencil, please. 2. I have ... ten programmes on my TV. 3. My friend has... car.... car is broken now. 4. I got... letter from my friend yesterday.... letterwas very long. 5. She has two... daughters and one... son. Her... son is... student. 6. My... brother's... friend has no... dog. 7. This is... house.... house is white. 8. They have... party.... party is... a birthday party. 9. Iread ... good book yesterday.... book was interesting and funny.

Задание 5.3. Вставьте артикли a, an, Ше,где необходимо:

1. Yesterday I saw... new film, but... film wasn't very interesting.*2. Moscow is sitiated on ... Moskva river and London is situated on... Thames. 3. Yuri Gagarin was... first man to fly over... Earth in spaceship.'4. My sister will go to school... next year. 5. In... summer we went to ...Black Sea.'6. ... New York is one of the biggest business centers in the world.*7. ... Lomonosov was... great Russian scientist. He was born in... small village on...shore of... White Sea. 8 Peter's brother is... worker and we are... students. 9. What... strange man he is! 10. In... summer we live in... country. 11....Russia is one of... largest countries of the world. 12. Is your dress made of... wool or... cotton? — It's made of silk.

Задание 5.4. Вставьте артикли a, an, the,Tfx,e необходимо:

1. What... fine day it is today! 2.... History and ... Computer Science were ... my favourite subjects at... school. 3. I don't know ... way to... station. 4. He is... engineer by... profession. 5. Usually I get up at ... 7 o'clock in... morning. 6.... Rostov is on ...right bank of... Don. 7. Will you have... cup of... tea? 8. ... Warsaw is ... capital of Poland. 9. We shall go to...cinema together with... our friends. 10. This is... book,... book is very interesting. 11. Do you see... sun in... sky today? 12. He is... engineer by... profession. 13.1 went to... Smirnovs, but they were not at... home.

Задание 5.5. Употребите, где требуется, артикли:

а, an, the.

1.... Volga is... longest river in... Europe. 2. What is...

nearest way to... Drama Theatre? 3 butter and...

cheese are made of... milk. 4. Usually I get up at... 7 o'clock in... morning. 5... .Rostov is situated on... Don.

б. Will you have... cup of... tea? 7.

Задание 5.6. Переведите на английский язык, обращая внимание на употребление артикля.

1. Какой прекрасный цветок! 2. Какой хороший друг! 3. Вчера Ивановы уехали в Киев. 4. Вечером наша семья дома. 5. Москва — столица России. 6. Это — мой дом. Дом — новый 7. Летом мы жили в деревне на реке Дон. 8. Он учитель или инженер по профессии? 9. Мы — студенты колледжа. 10. Посмотрите на картинку на странице десять.

Задание 5.7. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

ABOUTMYSELF

My name is Marina Suvorova. I am 15.1 was born on the 5^th of March, 1985 in Rostov-on-Don. Now I live in Rostov with my parents and my grandmother.

My family is not very large. We have five people in our family. My father's name is Igor Petrovich He is forty years old. He is a doctor and he works at a hospital. My mother's name is Lyudmila Leonidovna. She is thirty nine years old. She is a housewife. My younger sister is a pupil. She is in the seventh form. My grandmother lives with us. She doesn't work. She is a pensioner. I love my family. We are all friends and we love each other.

I have one aunt and two uncles. Their children are my cousins.

We live in a big flat in a new house. There are four rooms in our flat: a living room, a study, a kitchen, a bathroom and two bedrooms. We have all modern conveniences: gas, hot water, running water, electricity and telephone. I have my duties about the house. I must go shopping. I help my Mother to clean the rooms. It's not difficult for me. I like our home to be clean and tidy.

I am a student of the college now. We have many good teachers at our college. I try to be a good pupil and I do well in all subjects. But my favourite subject is English. I spend much time on it. I like reading. I like detective stories but I prefer to read historical novels or modern writers.

I have many friends. Many of them are my classmates. We spend much time together, go for a walk, talk about lessons, music and discuss our problems. I like to listen to modern music, but sometimes I like to listen to some classical music. My favourite composer is Tchaikovsky. I haven't much time to watch TV but sometimes I spend an hour or two watching an interesting film or a news programme. In the evening I often read newspapers or an interesting book. I like fresh air and exercises, but I have not much time to go in for sports.

Words

parents — родители

a housewife — домохозяйка

younger — младшая

a pensioner — пенсионер

an aunt — тетя

an uncle — дядя

a cousin — кузен, кузина

living room — жилая комната _

a study — кабинет

a bathroom — ванная, туалет

a bedroom— спальня

modern — современный

conveniences — удобства

running water — холодная вода

duties — обязанности

to go shopping — ходить за покупками

tidy — опрятный

to try — стараться, пытаться

favourite — любимый

to do well — зд. успевать

favourite — любимый

to prefer — предпочитать

to spend — проводить, тратить

sometimes — иногда

an hour — час

fresh — свежий

go in for sports — заниматься спортом

Задание 5.8. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. What is your name?

2. Where and when were you born?

3. How old are you?

4. Where do you live?

5. Have you got a family?

6. How large is your family?

7. Do you have brothers, sisters, grandparents in your family?

8. What are your father and mother?

9. How many rooms are there in your flat?

10.What modern conveniences have you got in your flat?

11.What are your duties about the house?

12.What is your favourite subject at the college?

13.What books do you like to read?

14.What music do you like to listen to?

15.Do you go in for sports?

16.What sport do you go in for?

Задание 5.9. Найдите эквиваленты интернациональных слов.

д hospital ['hospitl] медицина

v \ profession [prs'fejn] любимое занятие

\i medicine [' medsn] ветеран

hobby ['hobi] героизм

guitar [gi'ta:] медицинский

veteran ['vetargn] инженер

patriotic ['pasitri'otik] технический

heroism ['herouizm] лига, союз

pensioner ['репГэпэ] больница

medical ['medikl] радио

engineer ['encfci'nis] техник

student |'stju:dant] результат

technical ['teknikl] кузина

league [li:g] патриотический

radio ['reidio] пенсионер

result [ri'zAlt] студент

cousin ['kAzn] профессия

technician [tek'nijn] гитара

Задание 5.10. Образуйте сложные существительные и переведите их.

Образец: English, a man — Englishman — англичанин

1) A school, a girl

2) a week, an end;

3) abed, a room;

4) a birth, a day;

5) news, paper;

6) a class, a room;

7) a tape, a recorder;

8) a chair, a man;

9) an air, a craft;

10)a text, a book;

11)a house, a wife;

12)rain, a coat;

13)a rail, a way;

14)a sea, a man;

15)a post, a man;

16)a class, a mate.

ОБОРОТ there is / there are

Оборот there is / there are служит для выражения наличия (отсутствия) какого-либо предмета в определенном месте или в определенное время.

Present Indefinite

There is a picture on the wall. На стене картина.

Is there a picture on the wall! На стене есть картина?

There are pictures on the wall. На стене картины.

Are there pictures on the wall¹! На стене есть картины?

Past Indefinite

There was a picture on the wall. На стене была картина.

Was there a picture on the walli На стене была картина?

There were pictures on the wall. На стене были картины.

Were there pictures on the walli На стене были картины?

Future Indefinite

There will be pictures on the wall. На стене будут картины.

Will there be pictures on the walli На стене будут

картины?

Выбор формы глагола to be зависит от числа существительного, следующего сразу за ним:

There is a chair and two armchairs in the room-There are two armchairs and a chair in the room. Вопросительные предложения с оборотом there is / there are строятся следующим образом

Общий вопрос: Is there anything in the bag? Will there be lessons tomorrow?

Специальный вопрос: What is there in the bag? Разделительный вопрос. There are some pupils in the classroom, aren't there?

Задание 6.1. Вставьте to be в нужной форме:

1.There... a telegram on the table. 2.... there any telegrams fromMoscow? Yes, there... some. 3.... there ... a

flight for Moscow tomorrow? Yes, there 4. There...

much snow last winter. 5. There... a lot of stars and planets in space. 6.... there... a lift in your future house? Yes, there 7. Some years ago there... many old houses in

our street. 8.... there any lectures yesterday? No, there... 9.... there a lamp over the table? Yes, there.... 10.... there any interesting stories in this book? 11.... there a test last lesson? No, there.... 12. Soon there................ a new film on.

Задание 6.2. Поставьте вопросы к следующим предложениям:

1. There are some new pupils in our group. 2. There is no book on the table. 3. There were many old houses in our street. 4. There are 4 seasons in a year. 5. There will be a conference next week. 6. There are many large cities in our country. 7. There was nobody in the room. 8. There are 7 days in a week. 9. There is something on the shelf. 10. There are many places of interest in London. 11. There are many beautiful flowers in our garden. 12. There was much work last week.

Задание 6.3. Напишите следующие предложения в прошедшем и будущем временах:

1. There is much snow in winter. 2. There are 5 theatres in our city. 3. There is no lift in our house. 4. There are many new books in our library. 5. There is little milk in the bottle. 6. There are 3 rooms in our flat. 7. There is a map on the wall.

Задание 6.4. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

MY WORKING DAY

Usually I get up at 7 o'clock on week-days. I do my bed and open the window. Sometimes I do my morning exercises, but not always. Then I go to the bathroom. There I wash myself and clean my teeth. Sometimes I take a shower. After that I go back to my bedroom, dress/myself and brush my hair. In five minutes I am ready for breakfast. I usually have a cup of tea or coffee and a sandwich. After breakfast I take my bag, put on my coat and go to the college.

I live not far from my college and it takes me only ten minutes}to walk there. I am never late for the first lesson because I come to the college a few minutes before the bell. I leave my coat in the cloakroom and go to the classroom. The lessons begin at eight o'clock and at half past one they are over. Sometimes after the lessons I go to the library to take some books. I usually do my hometask at home. As a rule, I have no free time on my week-days.

Sometimes I have dinner at my college canteen. For dinner I usually have soup for the first course, meat or fish with some salad for the second. I drink milk or a cup of tea.

Twice a week I go to the swimming pool. I play volleyball in the college team and we have our training at our big gymnasium.

In the evening all the members of our family get together. We have supper together, watch TV or read books. Reading is my hobby. I like to read detective stories or books of modern writers. At about eleven o'clock I go to bed.

Words

usually — обычно sometimes — иногда enough — достаточно shower — душ always — всегда only — только never — никогда cloakroom — раздевалка as a rule — как правило canteen — столовая twice — дважды team — команда gymnasium — спортзал

Задание 6.5. Ответьте на вопросы.

1. When do you usually get up on your working day?

2. What do you do in the morning when you get up?

3. What do you have for breakfast?

4. How much time does it take you to get to your school?

5. Do you have dinner at home or at school canteen?

6. What do you usually have for dinner?

7. Do you of ten go to the library?

8. When does your family have supper?

9. Do you go in for sports?

10. When do you usually go to bed?

Задание 6.6. Напишите рассказ о своем рабочем дне. Задание 6.7. Прочитайте и переведите текст. MY DAY OFF

The last two days of the week are Saturday and Sunday. They are called the weekend. People don't go to work on weekends. But students and pupils have only one day off. It is Sunday.

Weekend is my favourite time of the week because I don't go to the college. I think Sunday is the best day of the week. On this day I wake up later than usual. And sometimes I don't get up till nine or ten o'clock. As soon as I get up I air the room, do my bed and do morning exercises. Then I have breakfast and help my Mother to clear away the dishes and wash them.

After breakfast I get ready with my homework and then I am free. I meet my friends and we discuss our plans together. Last Sunday we went to the Zoo. There were many funny animals there. It was very interesting to

spend time there.

On Sundays I usually do shopping. My Mother tells me what to buy, I take a shopping bag and go shopping. As a rule I go to the shop near my house. There are many departments in this shop and I can buy different goods there. Then I go to the baker's and buy bread and rolls. I also buy milk at the dairy department. In the evening our family gets together. We have supper, watch TV or read books. Reading is my hobby. I like to read detective stories or books of modern writers. At about eleven o'clock I go to bed.

Words

till —до

as soon as —- как только

to air — проветривать

morning exercises — зарядка

Zoo — зоопарк

funny — смешной

animals — животные

to spend — проводить

to do shopping — делать покупки

to buy — покупать

department — отдел

goods — товары

baker's — булочная

rolls — булочки

bread — хлеб

also — также

dairy department —- молочный отдел

Questions

1. What days of the week do you like and why?

2. What time do you get up on Sunday?

3. What do you do in the morning?

4. How do you usually spend your days off?

5. Do you often go to the country on your days off?

6. How did you spend your last Sunday?

7. Do you go shopping?

8. Do you go in for sports on Sunday?9. Do you often go to see your friends? 10. Do you like to spend your days off with your friends or with your parents?

12.What is your hobby?

13.What books do you like to read?

14.Do your guests often come to you on Sunday?

Местоимения little и few и местоименные
выражения a little и a few

Местоимение little и местоименное выражение а little употребляются с неисчисляемыми существительными, местоимение few и местоименное выражение а few — с исчисляемыми:

Give me а little water, please.

There is little milk in the bottle.

I have a few friends in Minsk.

I've got only few pencils in the box.

Местоимения few и little означают «мало», а местоименные выражения a few и a little — «немного».

Much (много) употребляется с неисчисляемыми существительными, many (много)- с исчисляемыми.

Задание 6.8. Вставьте

much, many,

little, few,

a little, a few.

1. Haveyougot... time before the lesson? 2. Shegave him... water to wash his hands and face. 3. He had... English books at home, so he went to the library. 4. After the lesson everybody felt... tired. 5.1 like it here. Let's stay here... longer. 6. There were... new words in the text and Peter spent... time learning them. 7. There was... sugar in the bowl, and we put ... sugar there. 8. I know French... and I can help you with the translation of this text. 10. When we walked ... farther down the road we met another group of pupils. 11. I want to say... words about my travelling.

Задание 6.9. Переведите на английский язык следующие пары слов.

Много тетрадей, много молока, много воды, много дней, много газет,/много мела, много снега, много лет, много картин, много музыки, много сахара, много чая, много лимонов, много мяса, много комнат^ много учителей, много работы, много воздуха, много птиц, много машин.

Задание 6.10. Вставьте much или many.

1. Please don't ask me... questions. 2. How ... money have you got? 3. I never eat... bread with soup. 4. Why did you eat so... ice-cream? 5. She wrote us... letters from the country. 6.... of these students don't like to look up words in the dictionary. 7.... in this work was too difficult for me. 8. He spent... time writing his composition in Literature. 9. There were... plates on the table. 10-Thank you very ...! 11. ... of my friends are preparing for their examinations now. 12.1 don't like ... sugar in my tea.

Задание 6.11. Переведите на английский язык.

1. В стакане есть немного молока. 2. В тетради осталось мало чистых страниц. 3. У тебя много кофе? — Нет, очень мало. 4. Немногие из англичан говорят по-русски. 5. У них здесь очень мало друзей. 6. У него очень мало времени для чтения. 7. У Петра много русских книг и мало английских книг. 8. У меня есть немного времени вечером, чтобы закончить эту работу. 9. Я провожу много времени в библиотеке, потому что я готовлюсь к экзаменам.

Задание 6.12. Прочитайте и запомните слова по теме Meals. Еда.

restaurant ['restsro:r)] — ресторан

cafeteria [kasfi'tma] — кафетерий

canteen [kaen'ti:] — столовая (студенческая, школьная)

cafe ['kasfei] — кафе

breakfast — завтрак

lunch — второй завтрак

dinner — обед

supper — ужин

to have breakfast — завтракать

to have dinner — обедать

to have supper — ужинать

Названия продуктов и блюд:

bread [bred] — хлеб

butter [bAts] — сливочное масло

jam [с%зет] — джем, варенье

cheese [tji:z] — сыр

cornflakes — кукурузные хлопья

sugar [Jugs] — сахар

meat [mi: t] — мясо

fish — рыба

eggs — яйца

eggs and bakon — яичница с ветчиной

boiled eggs — вареные яйца

omelette — омлет

sausage ['sosid3]—колбаса

frankfurters ['frasrjkfutgz] — сосиски

ham — окорок, ветчина

porridge — каша

cream — сливки, сметана

soup [su:p] — суп

steak [steik] — бифштекс

mutton chops — котлеты из баранины

chicken f'tfikm] — курица

chips — чипсы

pudding — пудинг

rice [rais] — рис

salad — салат

pie [pai] — пирог

cake [keik] — торт, кекс, пирожное

ice-cream [ais kri:m] — мороженое

sweets — конфеты

salt [salt] — соль

pepper — перец

mustard ['niAStad] — горчица

vinegar ['vmiga] — уксус

sauce [so:s] — coyc

Drinks — напитки

soft drinks — безалкогольные напитки

strong drinks — спиртные напитки

mineral water — минеральная вода

fruit juice [fru:t d3u:s] — фруктовый сок

cocoa [koukou] — какао

coffee — кофе

tea — чай

wine ['wain] — вино

beer ['Ью] — пиво

Vegetables — овощи

cabbage [kasbicfo] — капуста

carrot [' kaerst] — морковь onion ['лщэп]— лук cucumber ['kju-.кэтЬэ] — огурец tomato [ta'ma:tou] — помидор beans [bi:nz] — фасоль

Fruit — фрукты apples. — яблоки pears [реэ] — груши plums [pbunz] — сливы oranges — апельсины grapes [greips] — виноград strawberries ['stobgriz] — клубника cherries ['tjeriz] — вишня

Названия предметов сервировки стола:

plate [pleit] — тарелка

spoon [spir.n] — ложка

tea spoon — чайная ложка

fork [fo:k] — вилка

knife [naif] — нож

glass [gla:s] — стакан

cup — чашка

saucer ['so:sa] — блюдце

bottle — бутылка

teapot — чайник (заварной)

ash-tray [aejtrei] — пепельница

napkin [naspkin] — салфетка

Задание 6.13. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

MEALS IN ENGLAND

The usual meals in England are breakfast, lunch, tea and dinner or, in simpler houses, breakfast, dinner, tea and supper. For breakfast Englishmen often have porridge or cornflakes with milk or cream and sugar, bacon and eggs, jam with buttered toasts and tea or coffee. For a change they can have a boiled egg, cold ham, or fish.

English people usually have lunch about one o'clock. At lunch time in a London restaurant you can have a mutton chop, or steak and chips, or cold meat or fish with potatoes and salad, then a pudding or fruit.

Afternoon tea can hardly be called a meal. It is a substantial meal only in well-to-do families. It is between five and six o'clock. It is rather a sociable sort of thing, as friends often come for a chat (поболтать) while they have their cup of tea, cake or biscuit.

In some houses dinner is the biggest meal of the day. But in great many English homes, the midday meal is the chief one of the day, and in the evening there is usually a much simpler supper — an omelette, or sausages, sometimes bacon and eggs and sometimes just bread and cheese, a cup of coffee or cocoa and fruit.

Задание 6.14. Составьте примерное меню вашего завтрака, обеда и ужина.

Начните так: For breakfast I usually have...

Задание 6.15. Вставьте артикли и переведите на русский язык со словарем

CHARLES DICKENS

At... beginning of... 19th century... little boy was born in... family of John Dickens,... clerk at... office in... Portsmouth, and was named Charles. He had... sister who was older than he, and there were several other children in... family. When Charles was seven, he was sent to...

school. He was not... strong child. He did not like to play... cricket or... football and spent all his free time reading. In 1821... family went to... London, and little Charles left behind him... happiest years of his childhood. His father was in... money difficulties, and... family became poorer and poorer.... boy had to give up his studies. Mr. Dickens was put into... debtors'prison. Little Charles learned to know all... horrors and cruelty of... large capitalist city. He had to go to work at... blacking factory. He worked there from... morning till... night. When his father came out of prison, Charles was sent to... school for some time. Soon he got work as... clerk. Then he learned... stenography and became... reporter in Parliament. In 1836 at... age of 24 Charles Dickens published his first book. It was... collection of... stories.... title of... book was «Sketches by Boz». These were followed by «Pickwick Papers» and «Oliver Twist» and many other famous novels. Charles Dickens is one of... greatest writers of... 19th century. His novels are now translated into most languages of... world.

СТЕПЕНИ СРАВНЕНИЯ ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫХ И НАРЕЧИЙ

Прилагательные обозначают признаки предметов и отвечают на вопрос какой?

A wide road. Широкая дорога.

A tall tree. Высокое дерево.

An.interesting book. Интересная книга.

Наречия отвечают на вопрос как?

Не speaks English well. Он говорит по-английски хорошо.

Прилагательные и наречия имеют три формы степеней сравнения:

положительную (positive degree), сравнительную (comparative degree), превосходную (superlative degree).

Формы сравнительной и превосходной степеней" образуются двумя способами:

Способ 1. Если прилагательное односложное, форма его сравнительной степени образуется при помощи суффикса -ег, а форма превосходной степени — при помощи суффикса -est.

Полож. степень	Сравн. степень	Превосх. степень
strong (сильный)	stronger (сильнее)	the strongest (сильнейший)
cold (холодный)	colder (холоднее)	the coldest (самый холодный)

Некоторые двусложные прилагательные оканчивающиеся на -у, -ег, -ow образуют степени сравнения так же, как и односложные, с помощью суффиксов -ег и -est.

easy (легкий),

easier (более легкий, легче),

the easiest (самый легкий, легчайший)

clever (умный),

cleverer (более умный, умнее),

the cleverest (самый умный, умнейший)

narrow (узкий),

narrower (более узкий, уже),

the narrowest (самый узкий)

Способ 2. От двусложных прилагательных и прилагательных состоящих из трех или более слогов, сравнительная степень образуется при помощи слова more (less), а превосходная степень — при помощи слова most (least)

famous — знаменитый

more (less) famous — более(менее) знаменитый

the most famous — самый знаменитый, знаменитейший

interesting — интересный

more interesting — более интересный, интереснее

the most interesting — самый интересный, интереснейший

Запомните исключения при образовании степеней сравнения прилагательных:

Положительная степень	Сравнительная степень	Превосходная степень
good (хороший)	better (более хороший, лучше)	the best (самый хороший, лучший)
bad (плохой)	worse (более плохой, хуже)	the worst (самый плохой, худший)
little (маленький)	less (меньше, меньший)	the least (самый маленький)
much (many) (много)	more (больше)	most (больше всего, самый большой)
far (далекий) far (далеко)	farther (более далекий) further (дальше)	the farthest (самый далекий) the furthest (дальше всего)

Существительное, определяемое прилагательным в превосходной степени, всегда имеет определенный артикль.

В предложениях со степенями сравнения прилагательных и наречий используются следующие союзы:

= as ... as такой же ... как Ф not so ... as не такой ... как

Запомните выражение: The more we learn the more we know. Чем больше мы учим, тем больше мы знаем.

Задание 7.1. Образуйте сравнительную и превосходную степень от следующих прилагательных и наречий.

1: large, tall, long, easy, hot, big, cold, nice, bad, _.strong, short, wide, good, happy, high, low, busy, well, little, many, far.

2. wonderful, necessary, quickly, interesting, comfortable, popular, active, famous, pleasant, beautiful, slowly, clearly,

Задание 7.2. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. This book is not so interesting as that one. 2. The Baltic Sea is not so warm as the Black Sea. 3. The more you read,.the more you know. 4. My brother is not as tall as you are. 5. The earlier you get up, the more you can do. 6. Today the wind is as strong as it was yesterday. 7. Your room is as light as mine. 8. John knows Russian
as well as English. 9. Mary is not so lazy as her brother.
10. The longer the night is, the shorter the day. 11. The
less people think, the more they talk.

Задание 7.3. Раскройте скобки, употребиц нужную степень прилагательного/наречия.

1. Winter is (cold) season of the year. 2. Moscow is (large) than St.Petersburg. 3. Which is (long) day of the year? 4. The Alps are (high) mountains in Europe. 5. Even (long) day has an end. 6. It is one of (important) questions of our conference. 7. Your English is (good) now. 8. Who knows him (well) than you? 9. We have (little) interest in this work than you. 10. Health is (good) than wealth. 11. Your son worked (well) of all. 12. Today you worked (slowly) than usually.

Задание 7.4. Переведите предложения.

1. Чарльз Диккенс — один из самых известных писателей в мире.

2. Этот рассказ интереснее, чем тот.

3. Ваш дом выше нашего? Нет, он такой же высокий, как и ваш.

4. Это — самая прекрасная картина во всей коллекции.

5. Российская Федерации больше Великобритании.

6. Он сделал работу быстрее, чем вы.

7. Чем больше вы работаете, тем легче сдавать экзамены.

8. Его работа лучше вашей, но работа Анны — самая лучшая.

9. Россия — самая большая страна в мире.

10.Я живу не так далеко от института, как мой друг.

11.В июле столько же дней, сколько и в августе.

12.Самолет быстрее, чем поезд.

Задание 7.5. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

TRAVELLING

Travelling became a part of our life. Thousands of people travel every day either on business or for pleasure. They travel by road, by train, by air or by sea.

Of course, travelling by air is the fastest and the most convenient way, but it is the most expensive, too. Travelling by train is slower than travelling by plane, but it is less expensive. You can see many interesting places of the country through the window. Modern trains have more comfortable seats. There are also sleeping cars and dining cars that make even the longest journey more pleasant. Speed, comfort and safety are the main advantages of trains and planes. That is why many people prefer them to all other kinds of travelling.

Travelling by sea is popular mostly for pleasure trips. Tourists can make voyages on large ships to foreign countries. The trips on the Volga, the Don and the Black Sea are very popular today.

As for me I prefer travelling by car. I think it's more convenient because you don't uy tickets, you can stop any place and spend as much time as you like at any place.

Words:

either ... or — или ... или

business travel — деловая поездка, командировка

advantages — преимущества

train — поезд

fast — быстрый

slow — медленный

convenient — удобный

way — путь, способ

sleeping car — спальный вагон

dining car — вагон ресторан

expensive — дорогой (о стоимости)

sleeping car — спальный вагон

dining car — вагон-ресторан

journey — путешествие, поездка

mostly — главным образом

voyage — путешествие (по воде)

trip — путешествие

to prefer — предпочитать

pleasant — приятный

plane (airplane) — самолет

kind — вид, род, сорт

Questions

1) Do you think modern life is impossible without travelling?

2) Why do people travel?

3) What are the means of travelling?

4) How do you prefer to travel and why?

5) What is the fastest kind of travelling?

Предлоги

Предлоги, обозначающие место At — у, в, возле, рядом местонахождение у чего-либо

местонахождение там, где протекает определенный процесс:

/ am sitting at the table. — Я сижу у стола.

I study at school. — Я учусь в школе.

The pupils are at the lesson. —Ученики на уроке.

In — в

местонахождение внутри чего-либо:

Не is in the office. — Он в офисе.

The books are in the bag. — Книги в портфеле.

On — на

местонахождение на поверхности:

The book is on the desk. — Книга на столе.

Under — под

местонахождение под другим предметом:

The book is under the table. — Книга под столом.

Across —через

I live across the street. — Я живу через дорогу.

Above — над

Местонахождение над другим предметом: There is a lamp above the table. — Над столом висит лампа.

Between — между

Between us. — Между нами.

As for me I prefer travelling by car. I think it's more convenient because you don't buy tickets, you can stop any place and spend as much time as you like at any place.

Words:

either ... or — или ... или

business travel — деловая поездка, командировка

advantages — преимущества

train — поезд

fast — быстрый

slow — медленный

convenient — удобный

way — путь, способ

sleeping car — спальный вагон

dining car — вагон ресторан

expensive — дорогой (о стоимости)

sleeping car — спальный вагон

dining car — вагон-ресторан

journey — путешествие, поездка

mostly — главным образом

voyage — путешествие (по воде)

trip — путешествие

to prefer — предпочитать

pleasant — приятный

plane (airplane) — самолет

kind — вид, род, сорт

Questions

1) Do you think modern life is impossible without travelling?

2) Why do people travel?

3) What are the means of travelling?

4) How do you prefer to travel and why?

5) What is the fastest kind of travelling?

6) Предлоги

Предлоги, обозначающие место At — у, в, возле, рядом

местонахождение у чего-либо

местонахождение там, где протекает определенный процесс:

/ am sitting at the table. — Я сижу у стола.

/ study at school. — Я учусь в школе.

The pupils are at the lesson. —Ученики на уроке.

In — в

местонахождение внутри чего-либо:

Не is in the office. — Он в офисе.

The books are in the bag. — Книги в портфеле.

On — на

местонахождение на поверхности:

The book is on the desk. — Книга на столе.

Under — под

местонахождение под другим предметом:

The book is under the table. — Книга под столом.

Across —через

I live across the street. — Я живу через дорогу.

Above — над

Местонахождение над другим предметом: There is a lamp above the table. — Над столом висит лампа.

Between — между

Between us. — Между нами.

in front of — впереди, перед

местонахождение предмета (лица) впереди другого

предмета (лица)

There is a telephone in front of him. — Перед ним стоит телефон.

Behind — за, позади,сзади

местонахождение предмета (лица) позади другого

предмета (лица),

There is a sport ground behind our school. — За нашей школой спортплощадка.

Around — вокруг

местонахождение одного предмета вокруг другого

предмета:

We are sitting around the table. — Мы сидим вокруг

стола.

Over — над, через, сверх

There is a bridge over the river. — Над рекой мост.

Near — вблизи, около, рядом с, возле, за

She is sitting near the table. — Она сидит за столом.

Up — вверх

Up the river. — Вверх по реке.

Down — вниз

Down the river. — Вниз по реке.

Задание 7.6. Заполните пропуски предлогами.

1. The book is... the table. 2. The lamp is... the table. 3. The girl is... the table. 4. The man is... the chair. 5. The book is... the bag. 6. The pencil is... the desk. 7. My house is ... the street. 8. The blackboard is ... the classroom. 9. The chair is ... the table. 10. We sit ... the table. 11. There is a lamp ...the desk. 12. Please, sit down ...the table. 13. A sport ground is ...our school. 14. Pushkin street is ... Lenin street and Sadovaya street. 15. We have lunch ... 11 o'clockand 12 o'clock. 16. The bridge is ... the Don River.

Задание 7.7. Употребите соответствующий предлог, где необходимо.

1. There is a picture... the wall. 2. What street do you live..? 3.... Sunday we of ten swim... the river. 4. Last week he went... Moscow. 5.They will go... the college tomorrow. 6. She goes... work... bus. 7. My brother stayed... home... the evening. 8. Many people travel... train. 9.1 see many books... the table and ...the bookcase. 10.1 was born... the first... October. 11. Our lessons begin... nine o'clock... the morning. 12. He took some books... the table and put them... his bag. 13.We went... home... foot. 14. They often go... a walk... the park. 15. My father ' works... the plant. 16. I don't like to sit... the window. 17. She stood... and went... the room. 18. Usually I get up... 7 o'clock, put... my dress and go... the kitchen. 19. My friend goes sports and I am fond... music.

15.... summer we spend much time... the open.

Предлоги, обозначающие движение

To — к

движение по направлению к предмету (лицу), протекающему процессу:

Come to me. — Подойдите ко мне.

From — от, из, со

движение от предмета (лица), удаление от протекающего процесса:

Take this book from the table.— Убери книгу со стола. I come from Russia. — Я из России.

Into — в, внутрь

движение внутрь ограниченного пространства: Put the book into the bag. — Положи книгу в портфель.

out of — из

движение из ограниченного пространства:

Take the book out of the table. — Возьми книгу из

стола.

on(to) /onto — на

движение на поверхность:

Snow fell onto the ground. — Снег падал на землю.

through — через, сквозь

Не went in through the door. — Он вошел через дверь.

Задание 7.8. Заполните пропуски предлогами.

Go ... the table. Take the book ... the table. Open it ... page six. Look ... the book. Put it... the bag. Take the pen and the pencil... the table. Put them ... the bag. Take the bag ... the table and go ... your desk.

Задание 7.9. Употребите соответствующий предлог (движения, места, направления).

(Above, acfoss, around, at, behind, from, in front of, in, into, on, out of, over, through, to, under)

1. There is a garden... our house. 2. The bridge is... the river. 3. All students are... the lesson now. 4. Where are the boys? They are... the park. 5. Our flat is... the centre. 6. There was a lamp... the table. 7. He will sit... you. 8. Usually we go... the college together. 9. He came... the house. 10. I come home... school very late. 11. Take my book... him, please. 12. Come... the room. 13. He took us... the forest. 14. Children, take your books... your bags and put them... the tables. 15. The box was... the bed. 16. He looks ... the window.

Предлоги времени

In — в

внутри временного отрезка:

In April, in 2000. — В апреле, в 2000 году.

In — через

через некоторое время:

in an hour, in two days — через час, через два дня

At — в

(точка во времени):

at 5 o'clock, at midnight — в 5 часов, в полночь

on — в

в (с названием дней недели, датами): on Monday, on the 10th of February — в понедельник, 10 февраля

Ъу — к

к определенному моменту: by 8 o'clock tomorrow — к 8 часам завтраfrom... till / from... to... — от... до from 5 till 6 o'clock — с 5-ти до 6-ти from 5 to 6jo" clock — с 5-ти до б-ти

for — в течение

в течение (отрезок времени): for an how— в течение часа

during — во время (чего-либо)

during the lesson— во время урока after — после (чего-либо)

after work — после работы before — перед (чем-либо)

before the lesson — перед уроком within — внутри, в рамках

within a month — в течение месяца

Прочие предлоги by— при, около, посредством:

by the window, by plane—около окна, самолетом with — вместе с:

with a friend — с другом for — для:

I'll do it for you. — Я сделаю это для тебя.

Задание 7.10. Переведите предложения на англий-ий язык.

1. В воскресенье у нас нет уроков. 2. Мы живем в Самаре, на улице Чехова. 3. Переведите этот текст с английского на русский. 4. Уроки начинаются в 9 часов. 5. Возьмите эту книгу у него. 6. Дайте эту книгу ему. 7. На столе была книга. 8. Мы работаем с 8 утра до 6 вечера. 9. Учитель вошел, взял книгу со стола и вышел из класса. 11. Мы работали а течение урока.

Задание 7.11. Вставьте артикли и переведите на русский язык со словарем:

William Shakespeare,... greatest English playwright, was born in 1564 in... Stratford-on-Avon in... England. ... Stratford is... small country town in... farming district near ... centre of... England .... Avon, which is... pretty river with... grass and... trees all along its banks, runs through ... Stratford. Not much is known of... Shakespeare's father. He was... farmer who, at... different times of his life, sold ... meat and bought and sold... wool. He was poor and was often in... money difficulties. Very little is known about... life of his only son William

also little house in which... great writer was born still

stands. It is now... museum. William went to... school in... Stratford. In 1586 he went to... London. Probably... first work he did there was at one of the two theatres that there were in... London at that time. Then he became... actor and soon began to write... plays for... company of actors to which he belonged. Shakespeare bought... largest house in his home town in 1597, but he did not spend much time there till 1610. He spent... last years of his life in it.

ОСНОВНЫЕ ТИПЫ ВОПРОСОВ, ИСПОЛЬЗУЕМЫЕ В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

1. Общий вопрос (Genera! Question)

Общий вопрос относится ко всему предложению в целом, и ответом на него будут слова yes или по: Do you like ice-cream? — Yes, I do. Can you speak English? — Yes, I can. Are you a schoolboy? — No, I am not. Have you bought a text book? — Yes, I have.

Порядок слов в общем вопросе

1) вспомогательный (модальный, глагол-связка) глагол,

2)подлежащее (существительное или местоимение),

3)смысловой глагол (или дополнение).

2. Специальный вопрос

Специальный вопрос относится к какому-нибудь члену предложения или их группе и требует конкретного ответа:

What is your name? — My name is Peter.

Where do you live? — / live in Rostov.

Специальный вопрос всегда начинается со специального вопросительного слова:

who (кто) where (где)

whom (кого) why (почему)

what (что) how long (как долго)

which (который) how many (сколько)

whose (чей) how much (сколько)

when (когда) how (как)

Порядок слов в специальном вопросе

1)вопросительное слово (what, where, who, when, how и т. д.),

2)вспомогательный (модальный, глагол-связка) глагол.

3)подлежащее,

4)смысловой глагол,

5)дополнения,

6)обстоятельства (места, времени, образа действия и т. д.)

В специальных вопросах, обращенных к подлежащему в формах Present и Past Indefinite, не употребляется вспомогательный глагол to do (did) и сохраняется прямой порядок слов:

Who wants to go to the cinema?

Whose pen is it?

Who lives here?

3. Альтернативный вопрос

Альтернативный вопрос предполагает выбор из двух возможностей:

Do you like coffee or tea? — Вы любите кофе или чай?

Альтернативный вопрос начинается как общий вопрос, затем следует разделительный союз or и вторая часть вопроса.

4. Разделительный вопрос (Tail Question)

Разделительный вопрос состоит из двух частей. Первая часть —это повествовательное предложение (утвердительное или отрицательное), вторая, отделенная запятой от первой — краткий вопрос (tail — «хвост»), который на русский переводится не правда ли? не так ли?

You are a pupil, aren't you? — Вы ученик, не правда ли?

You aren't a pupil, are you? — Вы не ученик, не правда ли?

В кратком вопросе повторяется вспомогательный, модальный или связочный глагол предложения, содержащего заявление. Если сказуемое предложения выражено глаголами to be или to have, то повторяются эти глаголы.

Не is reading, isn't he? Он читает, не так ли? (Повторяется вспомогательный глагол.)

Не can read, can't he? Он умеет читать, не так ли? (Повторяется модальный глагол сап.)

Не is a good pupil, isn't he? Он хороший ученик, не так ли? (Повторяется связочный глагол to be.)

Не has a book, hasn't he? У него есть книга, не так ли? (Повторяется глагол to have, употребляемый как смысловой глагол.)

Если в повествовательной части разделительного вопроса содержится утверждение, то во второй — отрицание.

Если в повествовательной части — отрицание, то во второй части, как правило, — утверждение:

Не is there, isn't he? Он там, не так ли?

Не isn't there, is he? Он не там, не так ли?

Задание 8.1. Прочтите и переведите на русский язык.

Поставьте к каждому предложению разделительный вопрос.

1. She is a student.

— Is she a student?

— Yes, she is. / No, she isn't.

2. He speaks English well.

— Does he speak English well?

— Yes, he does. / No, he doesn't.

3. They have many books.

— Have they many books?

— Yes, they have. / No, they haven't.

4. The weather was fine yesterday.

— Was the weather fine yesterday?

— Yes, it was./No, it wasn't.

5. We saw a new film yesterday.

— Did we see a new film yesterday?

— Yes, we did. / No, we didn't.

6. You can read well.

· Can you read well?

· Yes, you can. / No, you can't.

7. There will be five lessons tomorrow.

— Will there be five lessons tomorrow?

—Yes, there will. / No, there will not (won't).

Задание 8.2. Переведите предложения с альтернативными вопросами на русский язык.

1. Our family lives in a three-room flat.

· Does your family live in a three-room flat or in a house?

· It lives in a three-room flat.

2. They went to the same school.

— Did they go to the same school or to different

schools?

— They went to the same school.

3. He will read this book tomorrow.

· Will he read this book tomorrow or next week?

· He will read it tomorrow.

4. They are playing football now.

· Are they playing football or tennis now?

· They are playing tennis.

5. Our teacher has told us to write.

— Has our teacher told us to write or to read? He has told us to write.

Задание 8.З. Поставьте к следующим предложениям вопросы:

1. общие

2. специальные

3. разделительные

1. There is a book on the table. 2. He must work hard today. 3. We are leaving for Moscow next week. 4. We were reading the whole evening. 5. They don't go to work on Sunday. 6. It is not cold today. 7. Ann has already begun to read a new book. 8. We learn English at school. 9. They will show you how to get there.

Задание 8.4. Переведите предложения на английский язык.

1. Вам нравится больше английский язык или

французский?

2. Он живет в Ростове или в Москве?

3. Она его младшая или старшая сестра?

4. Студенты уже сдали экзамены или нет?

5. Петровы поедут летом на юг или на север?

6. Ваш друг учится в колледже или в университете?

7. Он знает ее лучше или вы?

Задание 8.5. Составьте письменно общие вопросы к следующим предложениям.

1. Our teacher knows several foreign languages. 2. He has graduated from our University last year. 3. We shall go to Samara next week. 4. They are working in our garden .5.1 have j ust read this book. 6.1 took this book from my friend. 7. He likes reading books. 8. She has many rel atives abroad. 9. They were in many countries. 10. Russia is the largest country in the world.

Задание 8.6. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

MY FRIEND

I have many friends. Most of them are my former classmates but my best friend is Peter. He is fifteen. Now he is a student of a college. He is a good student because he studies hard and is very diligent. He wants to become a good specialist and he is especially interested in computers. He often helps me with my English lessons and I'm grateful to him for that.

Now I want to tell you about his appearance. He is rather tall and strong. He has an oval face, straight nose, dark-brown hair, blue eyes and a nice smile. People find him good-looking.

Peter goes in for sports. He plays football and basketball well. His basketball team is very popular at the college.

We made friends with Peter when he and his family moved to our house. We have very much in common: we like the same music, we both like reading. In general my

friend is a very interesting person: he is intelligent and well-read.

But the most important thing is that Peter is honest and kind. I can fully rely on him and trust everything to him. Peter has a great sense of humour and I like to spend my free time with him.

I have another friend. Her name is Natasha. She is a schoolgirl and she lives next door. I like her very much. She is a blonde with blue eyes, she is slim and pretty. Her hair is long and she has a nice complexion. I like all my friends very much. I think they are all my faithful friends.

Words

former — бывший

strong — сильный

classmates — одноклассники

dark-brown — темно-коричневый

to study hard — усердно учиться

diligent — прилежный

especially — особенно

grateful — благодарный

appearance — внешний вид

rather — довольно

tall — высокий

straight — прямой

team — команда

to move — зд. переехать

in common — общего

same — тот же

both — оба

intelligent — умный

well-read — начитанный

honest — честный kind — добрый fully — полностью to rely — полагаться to trust — доверять sense — чувство blonde — блондин(ка) faithful — верный slim — стройный pretty — красивая hair — волосы complexion — цвет лица

Questions

1. Who is your best friend?

2. Where does your friend study?

3. How does your friend look like?

4. What kind of sport does your friend like?

5. How did you make friends?

6. What do you have much in common?

7. Do you like to spend your free time with your
friends?

8. Can you call all your friends faithful?

9. Is the sense of humour important in friendship?

10. What are the hobbies of your friends?

Пополните свой активный словарь: tall [to:l] — высокий short [fo:t] —маленького роста stout [staut] — приземистый, коренастый fat [fet] — толстый plumpy [pUmpi] — полный fair hair [fes Ъгэ'] — светлые волосы

gray hair — седые волосы

bold headed [bauld] — лысый

short sighted — близорукий

smart, clever, bright — умный (ая)

stupid ['stju:pid] — тупой, глупый

boring — скучный(ая)

quiet f'kwaiat] — спокойный

impulsive [im'pAlsiv] — порывистый, импульсивный

aggressive [a'gresiv] — агрессивный

rude [ru:d] — невежливый, грубый

shy [Jai] — застенчивый

active fasktiv] — активный

talkative ['to:kativ] — разговорчивый

Задание 8.7. Составьте короткий рассказ о внешности и характере какого-нибудь человека (вашего друга, соседа по парте, студента из вашей группы).

СЛОВООБРАЗОВАНИЕ Основные суффиксы существительных

Суффикс	К какой части речи добавляется	Основное значение образованных слов	Примеры	Перевод
1	2	3	4	5
-ant/ent	к глаголам	принадлежность к профессии	assistant student	ассистент студент
-ег/-ог	к глаголам	действующеее лицо или механизм, производящий действие	reader worker visitor	читатель рабочий посетитель

brunette [bru:'net] — брюнет(ка) 1		2		3		4	5
-dom		к существ., прилаг.		состояние, качество		freedom	свобода
-ег		к существ.		имя существительное, обозначающее жителя		Londoner	лондонец
-hood		к существ.		состояние		childhood	детство
-ian		к существ.		профессия		physician technician	врач техник
-ics		к существ.		название науки		physics	физика
-ing		к глаголам		процесс, действие, состояние		reading smoking	чтение курение
-ion (-tion, -atton)		к глаголам		процесс, название действия, состояние		revolution solution aviation	революция раствор авиация
-ism		к существ., прилаг.		учение, теория, направление		darwinism heroism	дарвинизм героизм
-ment		к глаголам		результат действия		equipment settlement	оборудование поселение
-ness		к прилаг.		качество или состояние		softness darkness	мягкость темнота
-ship		к существ.		состояние		fiendship	дружба
Основные суффиксы прилагательных
Суффикс	Основное значение образованных слов		Примеры		Перевод
1	2		3		4
-able			valuable		ценный
-al	наличие качества, свойства		electrical medical		электрический медицинский
-ant	наличие качества, свойства		resistant different		сопротивляющийся различный
-ary	наличие качества		revolutionary		революционный
-ful	наличие признака		useful		полезный

1	2	3	4
-ish	наличие качества, свойства	childish reddish	детский красноватый
-ive	отсутствие качества	creative	созидательный
-less	наличие качества	useless	бесполезный

Основные суффиксы глаголов

Суффикс	Примеры	Перевод
-ate	investigate	активизировать
-en	harden	закаливать
-fy	classify	классифицировать
-ize	memorize	запоминать

Основной суффикс наречий

Суффикс	Основное значение образованных слов	Примеры	Перевод
-у	изменяет часть речи	badly	плохо

НЕОПРЕДЕЛЕННЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ SOME, ANY, ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНОЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЕ N0 И ИХ ПРОИЗВОДНЫЕ

Употребление some и any, а также их производных определяется типом предложения.

В утвердительном предложении употребляются, как правило, местоимение some и его производные:

Give me something to read, please. Дайте мне что-нибудь почитать, пожалуйста.

I met him somewhere before. Я встречал его где-то

раньше.

В вопросительных и отрицательных предложениях обычно' используются местоимение any и его производные:

Have you seen him anywhere? Вы видели его где-нибудь?

Is there anything I can do for you? Могу ли я что-нибудь для вас сделать?

В отрицательных предложениях используется либо местоимение any и его производные,

I cannot find this book anywhere. Я не могу нигде найти эту книгу.

либо отрицательное местоимение по

There is nobody in that room. В той комнате никого нет.

There isn't anybody in that room. В той комнате никого нет.

Различия между местоимениями any и some — г степени неопределенности, поэтому иногда местоиме ние any можно встретить и в утвердительных предло жениях:

You can find this book anywhere. — Эту книгу вы можете найти где угодно.

Задание 9.1. Образуйте 16 производных местоимений и переведите их.

Образец: some + body = somebody — кто-то, кто-нибудь

some body

any one

no thing

every where

Задание 9.2. Вставьте somebody, anybody, nobody или everybody.

1. The question is so difficult that... can answer it. 2.... left his bag in our classroom yesterday. 3. Has... in this group got a dictionary? 4. It is too late. I think there is... in the office now. 5. ... knows that plants like water. 6. Is there... here who knows English? 7. You must find... who can help you. 8.... knew anything about our home task. 9. The question is very easy________________ can answer this question. 10. There is... in the next room. I don't know him. 11. Please, tell us the story. ... knows it. 12. Is there... you want to tell me? 13. Has... here got a red pencil?

Задание 9.З. Переведите на английский язык, употребляя неопределенные (или отрицательные) местоимения и их производные.

1. Есть кто-нибудь здесь? 2. В саду никого нет. 3. В нашей комнате есть кто-нибудь? 4. В классе есть кто-то. 5. В саду есть кто-нибудь? — Там никого нет. 6. На столе есть что-нибудь? — Нет, там ничего нет. 7. В сумке что-то есть. 8. В этой книге.есть что-нибудь интересное? 9. На стене есть какие-нибудь картины? — Да, там есть несколько. 10. В комнате есть кто-нибудь? — Нет, там никого нет. 11. В нашей библиотеке есть какие-то книги на английском языке. 12. В вашей библиотеке есть какие-нибудь книги на английском языке? 13. Мой друг не хочет мне ничего сказать. 14. Возьмите что-нибудь почитать для меня в библиотеке. 15. Если вы голодны (to be hungry), поищите (look for) что-нибудь в холодильнике (fridge). 16. Расскажите нам всё о вашем путешествии. 17. Никто нигде не помог ему.

Задание 9.4. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

SEASONS AND WEATHER

There are four seasons in a year: winter, spring, summer and autumn. Each of them lasts three months.

Summer is my favourite season. June, July and August are summer months. When summer comes, the weather gets warmer and sometimes it can be very hot. In summer people spend much time in the open» They find time to go to the forest or to swim in the river. Schoolchildren like their summer holidays.

Autumn comes in September with the beginning of the school year. It is the time when fruit and vegetables become ripe. It is a very beautiful time of the year when the weather is still warm and the leaves change their colour from green to yellow and red. But then it gets colder. The leaves fall from the trees and cover the ground. Birds fly away to warm countries. Then winter comes.

Winter is usually a cold season. It of ten,snows, rivers and lakes are frozen. The sun sets early and rises late —

especially in December and January. The days are short, the sky is often grey. Every New Year begins in winter on the first of January. It's a holiday and people decorate their flats with New Year trees.

Spring begins in March. The weather gets better and the sun shines more brightly. The days become longer. The birds return from the South and make their nests. It sometimes rains but the sky is usually bright-blue and it is warm.

Words

season — время года

each — каждый

to last — длиться

in the open — на воздухе

fruit — фрукты

vegetables — овощи

ripe — спелый

still — все еще

warm — теплый

cold — холодный

to fall — падать

to cover — покрывать

to set — садиться

to rise — вставать

to decorate — украшать

New Year tree — елка

frozen — замерзший

to return — возвращаться

nest — гнездо

Ответьте на вопросы:

1. How many seasons are there in a year?

2. Do people try to spend more time in the open air in summer?

3. Why do we like spring so much?

4. Is summer the best season for tourism?

5. Where did you go last summer?

6. What is the weather like in winter?

7. Do you like winter? Why?

8. Do you go in for skating or skiing in winter?

9. What do you usually do when the weather is bad in autumn and winter?

10.What is good and what is bad in each season?

11.Why do most people prefer summer to any other season of the year?

12.What is your favourite season?

13.What are the hottest and the coldest seasons in our country?

ВРЕМЕНА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ГЛАГОЛА

Таблица временных форм глагола

Время	Простое Indefinite (Simple)	Длительное Continuous	Завершенное Perfect
Настоящее	I write Я пишу (вообще, обычно)	I am writing Я пишу (сейчас)	I have written Я (уже) написал
Прошедшее Past	I wrote ' Я (на) писал (вчера)	I was writing Я писал (в тот момент)	I had written Я написал (уже к тому моменту)
Будущее Future	I shall/will write Я напишу, буду писать (завтра)	I shall/will be writing Я буду писать (в тот момент)	I shall/will have written Я напишу (уже к тому моменту)

Группа временных форм 'ndefinite (Simple) Формы глагола в Present Indefinite

Число	Утвердительная форма,	Вопросительная форма	Отрицательная форма
Ед.	I (you) ask. Не (she, it) asks.	Do I (you) ask? Does he (she, it) ask?	I (you) do not ask. He (she, it) does not ask.
Мн.	We (you, they) ask.	Do we (you, they) ask?	We (you, they) do not ask.

Глаголы в формах Indefinite (Simple) описывают обычные, повторяющиеся действия как факт — безотносительно к их длительности или к результату действия:

I go to school every day. — Я хожу в школу каждый день. В этом высказывании интересует не время, потраченное на дорогу, не процесс движения, не результат походов, а сам факт: я хожу в школу, а не на работу. То же самое относится к прошедшему времени и к будущему:

J went to school when I was a boy. — Я ходил в школу, когда был мальчиком.

/ shall go to school when I grow up. — Я буду ходить в школу, когда вырасту.

Для указания на повторный характер действия часто употребляются слова

every day / week, month, year (каждый день / каждую неделю, месяц, год),

often (часто), seldom (редко), always (всегда), usually (обычно), never (никогда).

Наречия often, seldom, always, never, usually обычно ставятся перед глаголом.

В предложениях с глаголом to be эти наречия обычно ставятся после глагола.

Не is never late for the lessons. — Он никогда не опаздывает на уроки.

Формы глагола в Past Indefinite

Число	Утвердительная форма	Вопросительная форма	Отрицательная форма
Ед. и мн.	I (you, he, she, it, we, they) asked.	Did I (you, he, she, it, we, they) ask?	I (you, he, she, it, we, they) did not ask.

Отрицательная и вопросительная формы в Indefinite образуются при помощи вспомогательных глаголов do, does, did с частицей not, краткая форма: don't, doesn't, didn't. Порядок слов прямой. Вопросительные предложения образуются, как правило, простой перестановкой подлежащего и вспомогательного глагола. Вопросительные местоимения при этом стоят всегда впереди.

Не is a student. — Is he a student?

We do not write much. — Do we write much?

You have a computer. — Have you a computer? — What do you have?

She does not live in Moscow. — Does she live in Moscow?

He didn't like the film. — Did he like the film? — What film he didn't like?

Особую группу составляют разъединительные вопросы, которые переводятся как утверждения плюс «не так ли?» Они применимы к любому времени. Например:

You speak English, don't you? Вы говорите по-английски, не так ли?

Но: Let us speak English, shall we? Давайте говорить по-английски, хорошо?

Правильные и неправильные глаголы (regular and irregular verbs)

По способу образования прошедшего времени все глаголы в английском языке можно разделить на две группы: правильные и неправильные. У правильных глаголов вторая и третья формы (Past Indefinite Tense и Past Participle — простое прошедшее время и причастие прошедшего времени) совпадают между собой и образуются путем прибавления к основе глагола окончания -ed (-d):

to ask — asked to change — changed

to receive — received to work— worked

При этом существует ряд особенностей:

а) если глагол оканчивается на -у с предшествующей согласной, то буква у меняется на i и добавляется окончание -ed

to supply — supplied to apply — applied если глагол оканчивается на -у с предшествующей гласной, то буква у не меняется и добавляется окончание -ed

to stay — stayed to play — played

б) если глагол оканчивается на согласную с предшествующим кратким гласным звуком, то согласная на конце удваивается:

to stop — stopped

После звонких согласных и гласных звуков окончание -ed или -d произносится как [d] loved, said, а после глухих согласных как [t] looked.

После звуков [d] и [t] на конце слова окончание -ed (-d) произносится как [id] landed, started.

Неправильные глаголы образуют вторую и третью формы различными способами, без четких правил. Это наиболее часто употребляемые глаголы. В конце книги приведен список часто встречающихся неправильных глаголав.

Формы глагола в Future Indefinite

Число	Утвердительная форма	Вопросительная форма	Отрицательная форма
Ед.	I shall ask. You (he, she, it) will ask..	Shall I ask? Will you (he, she, it) ask?	I shall not ask. You (he, she, it) will not ask.
Мн.	We shall ask. You (they) will ask.	Shall we ask? Will you (they) ask?	We shall not ask. You (they) will not ask.

Формы глагола в Present Continuous

Число	Утвердительная форма	Вопросительная форма	Отрицательная форма
Ед.	I arn asking. You are asking. He (she, it) is asking.	Am I asking? Are you asking? Is he (she, it) -asking?	I am not asking. You are not asking. He (she, it) is not asking.
Мн.	We (you, they) are asking.	Are we (you, they) asking?	We (you, they) are not asking.

to know (знать)

to remember (помнить)

to think (думать)

to want (хотеть)

to like (любить, нравиться)

to love (любить)

Формы глагола в Past Continuous

Число

Утвердительная форма

Вопросительная форма

Отрицательная

форма

Ед.

I (he, she, it) was asking. You were asking.

Was I (he, she, it) asking? Were you asking?

I (he, she, it) was not asking. You were not asking.

Мн.

We (you, they) were asking.

Were we (you, they) asking?

We (you, they) were not asking.

Past continuous обычно употребляется для выражения конкретного действия, длившегося в точно указанный момент или период в прошлом.

Формы глагола в Future Continuous

Present continuous употребляется для выражения действия, длящегося в настоящий момент или период. Указание на время типа now (сейчас), at the moment (в данный момент) может быть либо выражено, либо подразумеваться.

С глаголами, которые обозначают не действие, а состояние, Present Continuous обычно не употребляется:

to feel(чувствовать)

to be (быть, находиться)

to live (жить)

to stay (оставаться)

to hear (слышать) -

to see (видеть)

Число	Утвердительная форма	Вопросительная форма	Отрицательная форма
Ед.	I shall be asking. You (he, she, it) will be asking.	Shall I be asking? Will you (he, she, it) be asking?	I shall not be asking. You (he, she, it) will not be asking.
Мн.	We shall be asking. You (they) will be asking.	Shall we be asking? Will you (they) be asking?	We shall not be asking. You (they) will not be asking.

Future Continuous употребляется для выражения действия, которое будет длиться в точно указанный момент или период в будущем.

Глаголы в формах Continuous описывают действие как процесс, как длительность — в определенный момент в прошлом, настоящем или будущем:

/ am going to school (now). — Я иду в школу (сейчас, в настоящий момент).

/ was reading a book yesterday at 5 o'clock. — Я читал книгу вчера в 5 часов.

/ will be watching TV tomorrow at 7 o'clock. — Я буду смотреть телевизор завтра в семь часов.

Помимо этой функции, глаголы в Present Continuous выражают действие, отнесенное в ближайшее будущее:

We are leaving for Moscow in July. — Мы уезжаем в Москву в июле.

Группа временных форм Perfect

Present perfect

Present perfect образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола to have в настоящем времени (have, has) и третьей формы смыслового глагола. В вопросительном предложении вспомогательный глагол ставится перед подлежащим. В отрицательном предложении после вспомогательного глагола ставится отрицание not.

Формы глагола в Present Perfect

Число	Утвердительная форма	Вопросительная форма	Отрицательная форма
Ед.	I (you) have asked. Не (she, it) has asked.	Have I (you) asked? Has he (she, it). asked?	I (you) have not asked. He (she, it) has not asked.
Мн.	We (you, they) have asked.	Have we (you, they) asked?	We (you, they) have not asked.

Past Perfect Формы глагола в past perfect

Число

Утвердительная форма

Вопросительная форма

Отрицательная

форма

Ед. и

мн.

I (you, he, she, it, we, they) had asked.

Had I (you, he, she, it, we, they) asked?

I (you, he, she, it, we, they) had not asked.

Past Perfect употребляется:

а) для выражения действия, завершившегося до какого-либо момента или другого действия в прошлом: Не had read the book by 10 o'clock yesterday.

Он прочел книгу до десяти часов (к десяти часам) вечера

When we came to the airport the plane had already landed.

Когда мы приехали в аэропорт, самолет уже приземлился

б) в предложениях, в которых одно действие завершилось до другого действия, длящегося в прошлом: Не had read the book and was watching TV when I came. Когда я пришел, он уже прочитал книгу и смотрел телевизор. Future Perfect

Формы глагола в Future Perfect

Число	Утвердительная форма	Вопросительная форма	Отрицательная форма
Ед.	I shall have asked. You (he, she, it) will have asked.	Shall I have asked? Will you (he, she, it) have asked?	I shall not have asked. You (he, she, it) will not have asked.
Мн.	We shall have asked. You (they) will have asked.	Shall we have asked? Will you (they) have asked?	We shall not have asked. You (they) will not have asked.

Future Perfect употребляется для выражения действия, которое будет происходить до определенного момента или другого действия в будущем и завершится или прекратится до него.

Глаголы в формах Perfect выражают действие завершенное, приведшее к определенному результату (или к отсутствию результата). Можно сказать, что с помощью форм Perfect мы подводим итоги определенному периоду времени, определенных действий. Время подведения итогов — либо настоящий момент Present Perfect, либо момент в прошлом Past Perfect, либо — в будущем Future Perfect.

Ihave written, the letter. (Present Perfect) — Я (только что) написал письмо (передо мной письмо как результат).

/ had written the letter when he came. (Past Perfect) — Я написал письмо, когда он пришел. (2 действия, одно завершилось раньше другого)

/ will have written the letter by 10 o'clock tomorrow. (Future Perfect) — Я напишу письмо к 10 часам завтра, (действие завершится к определенному моменту времени в будущем).

Задание 10.1. Вставьте to w'rite в нужной форме.

I.We often... letters to our parents.

2. What... you... now?

3. Yesterday they ...... tests from 10 till 12 o'clock.

4. Who...... this letter?

5.1 some letters last "week.

6. What... you... tomorrow at 10?

7. When I came to her, she a letter.

8. ... you... letters tomorrow?

9. ...not... this letter now. I... ...it in some days.

10. ... he... his hometask now?

11. What... she... in the evening yesterday?

12. As a rule, he... tests well.

Задание 10.2. Раскройте скобки, укажите время глагола.

1. Не (know) several foreign languages. 2.1 (learn) English at school. 8. Usually the lessons (begin) at 9 o'clock. \f 4. Our grandparents (live) now in Moscow,/ - 5. He often (visit) them last year.

6. As a rule I (go) to my school by bus.

7. She (work) abroad next year.

8. 8. She (not like) loud music. —

9. Your children usually (ask) many questions.

10. At present he (work) at school.

11. My brother (like) music.

12. What you (do) yesterday?

13.His sister (go) to the seaside next July.

14.Soon we (leave) the school. '15. Who (take) his book yesterday?

Задание 10.3. Определите время сказуемого в следующих предложениях.

1)Present Indefinite

2)Past Indefinite

3)Future Indefinite

1. His sister studies at school. 2.You will see him tomorrow. 3.1 went to the college at 7 o'clock. 4. Who took my book? 5. They work every day. 6.1 shall read this book next week.-7. We translated this text last lesson. 8. What books does he usually read? 9. She will visit you soon.10. We shall be good specialists in some years. 11. My father went to Moscow yesterday. 12. Who knows him? 13. At last she opened the window. 14. You'll take this book in the library. 15. Do you often visit your parents? • 16. He knew these words well. 17. Shall I read this text? 18. His children like music. '19. Did they go to the village? 20. Tomorrow we'll go to the cinema.

Задание 10.4. Поставьте предложения в вопросительную и отрицательную формы.

Пе studies at the college'.^) They play football well, e usually watched TV in the evening^f4J0ur teacher asks many questions. J5, Nick worked at school last year. 6. We shall go to St Petersburg in summer. 7. They went to Moscow. 8. He will visit us some dayj^U) They study English. 10. My sister finished her workr

Задание 10.5. Поставьте глаголы, данные в скобках, в нужную форму.

1. Peter and Ann (go) away five minutes ago. 2.1 (write) the letter but I (not send) it. 3. He just (go) away. 4. She already (answer) the letter. 5. She (answer) it on Tuesday. 6.1 just (tell) you the answer. 7.1 (read) that book in my summer holidays. 8.1 (not see) him for three years. I (be) glad to see him again some time. 11. What you (do)? — I (copy) the text from the text-book now. 12. He (go) to Moscow next week? 13. He (not smoke) for a month. He is trying to give it up. 14. When he (arrive)? — He (arrive) at 2.00. 15. You (switch off) the light before you left the house? 16. I (read) these books when I was at school. I (like) them very much. 17.1 can't go out because I (not finish) my work. 18.1 already (tell) you the answer yesterday. 19. What you (do) tomorrow in the morning? 20.1 (not meet) him last week. 21.1 usually (leave) home at seven and (get) here at twelve. 22. Here is your watch. I just (find) it. 23. You (not have) your breakfast yet?

Задание 10.6. Переведите предложения на английский язык, обращая внимание на форму глагола сказуемого.

1. Я никогда об этом не слышал. 2. Я только-что прочитал ваше письмо. 3. Вы уже купили новую квартиру? 4. Вы сделали много ошибок в диктанте. 5. Вы когда-нибудь видели этого человека? 6. В этом месяце я прочитал две новых книги. 7. Мой друг уехал в Москву неделю назад и еще не писал мне. 8. Я не видел новых фильмов за последнее время (lately). 9. Вы читали сегодня в газете о нашем новом театре? 10. Вы были когда-нибудь в Лондоне? — Нет, я поеду туда в этом году. 11. Вы уже прочитали эту книгу? — Как она вам понравилась? 12. Я хотел посмотреть этот фильм на прошлой неделе, но смог посмотреть его только вчера. 13. В будущем году я собираюсь поступать в институт. 14. Ваш сын уже окончил институт? 15. Его дочь окончила школу в прошлом году.

Задание 10.7. Переделайте следующие предложения в вопросительно-отрицательные и дайте краткие ответы.

Образец: They are at home. — Aren't they at home? — Yes, they are. — No, they aren't.

Они дома. — Разве они не дома? — Да, дота. — Нет, не дома.

1. They left for Moscow.

2. He has finished his work.

3. She will visit us on Sunday.

4. She has many relatives.

5. His father works here.

6. You know his address.

7. We shall go home together.

8. He can play chess.

9. I am listening to you.

10.His friends were playing football.

11.You have done the task.

Задание 10.8. Переведите на английский язык.

1. Он писал письмо, когда я пришел к нему. 2. Он делал свою работу, пока его братья играли в футбол. 3. Я упал, когда играл в футбол. 4. Мы делали уроки, когда пошел дождь. 5. Когда учитель писал на доске, новая ученица вошла в класс. 6. Когда зазвонил телефон, я работал в саду. 7. Я увидел своих одноклассников, когда я шел по улице. 8. Начался дождь, когда мы наблюдали за игрой.

Задание 10.9. Поставьте глаголы в скобках в одно из прошедших времен.

1. When I (came) the lecture already (start)>2 They (go) to Moscow some days ago. 3. When I came he (leave), so we only had time for a few words. 4. When we (come) to the airport, the plane already (land). 5. He suddenly (understand) that he (travel) in the wrong direction. . Our teacher (speak) many foreign languages. 7. Who (speak) with уои?Ж. Не (play) tennis. 9.1 (go) home when we met.VlO. My son (play) the piano.0.1. They already (translate) this text last lesson. 2. You (do) this exercise last week. 13. We (discuss) your plan yesterday at 10o'clock#L4. It (rain) when I went for a walk. 15. What you (do) thereM6. I (not, write) at the lesson. 17. Students (translate) this text the whole lesson yesterday. 18. He already (come)?yi9. She said that she (not like) this book and (try) to find a more interesting one. 20. The train (leave) at 10. 21. When I (see) him he (cross) the street. 22. While he (water) the garden it (begin) to rain. V23. When Ann (finish) her homework she (turn) on TV.

Задание 10.10. Определите временную форму глаголов и переведите на английский язык.

1. Вчера в 9 часов вечера я смотрел телевизор. 2. Она сказала, что еще не выполнила домашнее задание. 3. Когда пришел мой друг, я еще завтракал. 4. Когда я встретил ее впервые, она работала в школе. 5. Все студенты выполнили задание после того, как преподаватель рассказал им, как его делать. 6. Когда мы вышли на улицу, ярко светило солнце. 7. Мой друг сказал, что его брат уже приехал. 8. Я читал книгу, когда услышал телефонный звонок. 9. После того, как врач осмотрел (to examine) больного, он поговорил с его родственниками, 10. Когда мы пришли на остановку (bus stop), автобус уже ушел. 11. Он смотрел телевизор, когда пришел его друг. 12. Почтальон обычно приходит в девять часов утра. Сейчас уже половина десятого, а он все еще не пришел. 13. Каждый вечер я смотрю телевизор. 14. Служащие (the clerks) заканчивают работу в шесть часов вечера. 15. Разве она не знала об этом? 16. Разве вы не видели этот фильм? 17. Она еще не брала своего маленького сына в театр. 18. Он обычно очень внимательно слушает учителя, но сейчас он не слушает, у него болит голова. 19. Я не играл в футбол с прошлого года. 20. Маленькая девочка час-то помогает своей матери. 21. Автор (author) еще (still) молодой человек. Он написал свою первую книгу в 1989 году. 22. Сейчас 8 часов утра и ребенок уже проснулся. Вчера утром он проснулся раньше. 23. В школе он играл в футбол.

Задание 10.11. Вставьте подходящие по смыслу слова.

1.... I go to the college by bus. 2.1 do my morning exercises...

3. We shall have invited you...

4. Who has seen him...?

5. He was working here...

6. We have... done our work.

7. What are you doing... ?

8. He was going home...

9. Will you have read the book...?

10. We translated this text....

11. Did you... see them?

1) before the college

2) by Tuesday

3) often

4) during October

5) every day

6) 6)just

7) last week

8) now

9) recently

10)usually

11)when we met

12)when he comes home

13)already

Задание 10.12. Приведены способы образования утвердительных и отрицательных форм кратких ответов типа « Я тоже». Переведите предложения.

1. Не doesn't understand anything. — Neither do I.

2. She can swim well. — So, can I.

3.1 didn't see this film. — Neither did he.

4. You like to read. — So do I.

5. They haven't had breakfast. — Neither have I.

6. He is lucky. — So am I.

6. I don't work at the office. — Neither does he.

Задание 10.13. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

GREAT BRITAIN

The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is situated on the British Isles. It consists of four parts: England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland.

England, Wales and Scotland occupy the territory of Great Britain and Northern Ireland is situated in the northern part of Ireland. The territory of the United Kingdom is about 244000 square kilometres. The population is over 56 million people. The capital of the United Kingdom is London.

The surface of the United Kingdom varies greatly. The northern and the western parts of the country are mountainous and are called the Highlands. All the rest is a vast plain which is called the Lowlands. The mountains are not very high. The rivers are not very long. The most important of them are the Severn and the Thames. There are many beautiful lakes in the mountainous part of the country.

The mountains, the Atlantic Ocean and the warm waters of the Gulf Stream influence the climate of Great

Britain. It is mild the whole year round. Winters are not cold and summers are not hot.

Great Britain is a highly developed industrial country. It is known as one of the world's largest producers and exporters of iron and steel products, machinery and electronics, chemicals and textile. One of the industries is shipbuilding.

Great Britain is a country with old cultural traditions and customs. The most famous educational centres are Oxford and Cambridge universities. They are considered to be the intellectual centres of Europe. The education is not free, it is very expensive.

The United Kingdom is a monarchy and the Queen is the head of the state. But in practice it is ruled by the government with the Prime Minister at the head. The British Parliament consists of two chambers: the House of Lords and the House of Commons.

There are three main political parties in Great Britain: the Labour party, the Conservative party and the Liberal party.

Words

to be situated — быть расположенным

British Isles — Британские острова

to occupy — занимать

surface — поверхность

to vary — меняться

high — высокий

low — низкий

land — земля, страна

plain — равнина

vast — огромный

lake — озеро

mountainous — гористый shipbuilding — кораблестроение education — образование free —- бесплатный expensive — дорогой to influence — влиять climate — климат mild — мягкий industry — промышленность population — население develop — развиЁать to produce — производить to export — экспортировать

chemicals -— продукты химической промышленности

textile — текстиль government — правительство chamber — палата to rule — править

Questions

1.What is the official name of Great Britain?

2.Where is it situated?

3.What parts does it consist of?

4.What is the territory and the population of Great Britain?

5.What city is the capital of Great Britain?

6.What is the surface of the country?

7.Are there any big rivers and lakes in Great Britain?

8.What is the climate on the British Isles?

9. Is Great Britain a highly developed industrial country?

10. What goods does the British industry produce?

11.Are there any big educational establishments in Great Britain?

12.Is Great Britain is a constitutional monarchy?

13.What is the name of the Queen of Great Britain?

14.How many chambers does the British Parliament consist of? What are they?

15.What are the main political parties in Great Britain?

СОГЛАСОВАНИЕ ВРЕМЕН В ГЛАВНОМ И ПРИДАТОЧНОМ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯХ

В английском сложноподчиненном предложении с придаточным дополнительным (вопрос «что?», «кто?», «чего?» и т. д.) соблюдаются правила согласования времен в главном и придаточном предложениях. Эти правила сводятся к следующему:

1. Если глагол-сказуемое главного предложения стоит в настоящем или будущем времени, то глагол-сказуемое придаточного дополнительного предложения может стоять в любой временной форме, требуемой смыслом, например:

Не says you are right. — Он говорит, что ты прав. Не will tell why he was not at school yesterday. — Он скажет, почему он не был в школе вчера.

2. Если глагол-сказуемое главного предложения стоит в прошедшем времени (обычно — в Past Indefinite), то и глагол дополнительного придаточного предложения должен стоять в одном из прошедших времен, в том числе — в будущем с точки зрения прошедшего (Future in the Past).

He said he would not go to school tomorrow. — Он сказал, что не пойдет в школу завтра.

При этом для обозначения действия, одновременного с действием, выраженным сказуемым главного

предложения, употребляется Past Continuous (в русском языке — настоящее время) или Past Indefinite.

Не told me he was preparing for his exam.. — Он сказал мне, что готовится к экзамену.

Для обозначения действия, предшествующего действию, выраженному сказуемым главного предложения, обычно употребляется Past Perfect. На русский язык глагол-сказуемое придаточного в данном случае переводится глаголом в прошедшем времени:

/ didn't know he had left for Moscow. — Я не знал, что он уехал в Москву.

При указании определенного времени (in 1980, yesterday) предшествующее время выражается при помощи Past Indefinite. Например: / thought you were born in 1980.

Для выражения будущего времени с точки зрения прошедшего времени употребляется форма Future in the Past где вспомогательный глагол will меняется на would, которая на русский язык переводится будущим временем:

Не told me that he would meet me at the college. — Он сказал мне, что встретит меня в колледже.

Задание 11.1. Составьте предложения, используя слова из колонок.

Не thinks he would go to Moscow tomorrow. He said that he will be an engineer. He says he knows mathematics well.

He thought he would be a good specialist.

he has translated the text.

he had passed his exams.

he knew English well.

Задание 11.2. Поставьте глаголы в нужную временную форму, соблюдая правило согласования времен. Переведите предложения.

1.1 did not know that you already (to read) this book 2. He did it better than we (to expect). 3. He said that the bus (to be) here soon. 4. He told us that he (to do) this work himself 5. They decided that they (to bring) us all the books we need. 6. He said that he (can) not do it without my help. 7. I decided that next year I (to go) to the Black Sea coast. 8. It was decided that we (to begin) our work at eight o'clock. 9.1 told them that I (to leave) for Minsk next day. 10. The boy did not know that he already (to receive) a good mark. 11. The students wanted to know when they (to pass) their examinations. 12. We saw that our teacher just (to go out) and he (to come back) soon. 13. He said we (may) keep the books as long as we (to like). 14. We knew that he not (to be able) to make his work in time and (to decide) to help him. 15. We understood at once that this control work (to be) a difficult one.

Задание 11.3. Прочитайте и переведите текст:

LONDON

London is the capital of Great Britain, its political, economic and commercial centre. It is one of the largest cities in the world and the largest city in Europe. Its population is about 8 million.

London is situated on the river Thames. The city is very old. It has more than 20 centuries old history. Traditionally it is divided into several parts, the City, Westminster, the West End and the East, End. They are very different from each other.

The City is the oldest part of London, its financial and business centre. Numerous banks, offices and firms are

concentrated here. Few people live in the City but over a million come to work here. There are two places of interest in the City: St. Paul's Cathedral and the Tower of London. St. Paul's Cathedral was built in the 17th century by the architect Christopher Wren. The Tower of London was built in the 15th century. It was used as a fortress, a palace and a prison. Now it's a museum.

Westminster is the aristocratic official part of London. There are Buckingham Palace where the Queen lives and the Houses of Parliament along the north bank of the Thames.

The clock tower of the Houses of Parliament is famous for its big hour bell known as «Big Ben». Westminster Abbey is the place where the coronation of nearly all kings and queens has taken place. Many of them are buried here as well as some other famous people of the country.

The West End is the richest and most beautiful part of London. The best hotels, restaurants, shops, clubs, parks and houses are situated there. There are many tourists there from different countries of the world.

Trafalgar Square is the geographical centre of London, it was named in the memory of Admiral Nelson's victory in the battle of Trafalgar in 1805. The tall Nelson's Column stands in the middle of the square.

The East End is an industrial district of London. There are many factories there. The region is densely populated by working class families.

Words

capital — столица

centre — центр

numerous — многочисленный

palace — дворец

fortress — крепость

cathedral — собор

hotel— гостиница

prison — тюрьма - _

clock tower — колокольня

monument — памятник

memory — память

museum — музей

residence — резиденция

official — официальный

densely — плотно

populated — населено

Questions

1. What is the capital of Great Britain?

2. Is London a big city?

3. What is London's population?

4. On what river does London stand?

5. Into what parts is London divided?

6. Why is the City called the business centre of London?

7. What places of interest does Westminster include?

8. Who was buried in Westminster Abbey?

9. What is the West End famous for?

10.Why is the central square in London named Trafalgar Square?

11.Who lives in the East End?

Словообразование

Наиболее употребительные суффиксы и префиксы существительных

Суффиксы существительных

-ег/ог — teacher, writer, actor, doctor

-ist — scientist, artist

-ment — movement, development, government

-ess — fortress, hostess, actress

-ian — musician, technician, politician

-ance — distance, importance, appearance

-(t)ion — revolution, translation, operation

-ity/-ty — popularity; honesty, morality, ability

-hood — childhood, neighbourhood

-y — energy, assembly

-ship — friendship, leadership

-age -— passage, marriage

-ism — heroism, socialism, capitalism

-ant — assistant, cousultant

-ence — conference, silence, difference

-ure — culture, picture, agriculture

-ing — building, reading, meeting

-dom — freedom, kingdom, wisdom

-sion/ssion — revision, session, discussion,

-ness — happiness, illness, darkness

(-s)ure — pleasure, treasure, measure

И. Префиксы существительных

re — reconstruction,

со — cooperation, coexistence

dis — disadvantage, discomfort, distaste

in — inaccuracy, independance

mis — misunderstanding, misprinting, misinformation

im — impossibility, impatience

un — unemployment, unconcern, unreality

il — illegality, illiteracy.

Наиболее употребительные суффиксы и префиксы глаголов

Суффиксы глаголов

en — deepen, lighten, strengthen;

fy — classify, electrify, specify

ize — organize, characterize, mechanize

ate — indicate, activate, translate

Префиксы глаголов

со — cooperate, coexist, collaborate

de — decode, decompose, demobilize

dis — disbelieve, disapprove, disapear

in — input, inlay, incut, indraw

im — immigrate, impart, implant;

inter — interact, interchange, interdepend

ir — irradiate, irrigate, irritate

over — overcome, overheat, overhear, overlook

re — readjust, rebuild, reconstruct,rewrite

mis — misprint, misunderstand, miscount.

Наиболее употребительные суффиксы и префиксы прилагательных

Суффиксы прилагательных

-ful — careful, beautiful, useful, powerful

-ant — distant, important, resistant

-ous — famous, dangerous, various

-ed — talented, developed, interested

-ing — interesting, disappointing

-al — natural, cultural, territorial

-ent — dependent, transparent, different

-ish — Spanish, British, boyish, Irish

-ible — possible, terrible, visible, convertible

-able — comfortable, miserable

-ic — atomic, historic, poetic, heroic

-y. — rainy, busy, sunny, windy, dirty

-less — hopeless, lifeless, useless, homeless

-ary — ordinary, revolutionary, necessary

-ive — inventive, effective, impressive, detective -ian — Russian, Canadian, Romanian

Префиксы прилагательных

un — unhappy, unable, uncomfortable in — independent, indirect, invisible dis — disappointing, discouraging, disconnectng im — impossible, imperfect, immoral, immaterial non — non-ferrous, non-governmental ir — irregular, irresponsible, irrational post — post-war, post-operational inter — interdependent, interchangeable, international

il — illegal, illiberal, illimitable.

Задание 11.4. Прочитайте следующие существительные, укажите, от каких слов они образованы, определите суффиксы.

Russian, construction, direction, concentration, collection, heroism, popularity, musician, boyhood, agreement, kingdom, drawing.

Задание 11.5. Используя известные вам суффиксы и префиксы, образуйте существительные от следующих слов и переведите их на русский язык.

1) to sail, to connect, to educate, to build, to dance

2) friend, leader, fellow

3) dark, weak, mad, cold, bright

Задание 11.6. Образуйте прилагательные от следующих слов, используя суффиксы и префиксы, и пе-.реведите их на русский язык.

hope, truth, beauty, rain, peace, help, colour, power, joy, pain, care, use

СТРАДАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ЗАЛОГ

(Passive Voice)

Формы страдательного залога английских глаголов образуются с помощью вспомогательного глагола to be в соответствующем времени, лице и числе и причастия II (Participle И) смыслового глагола:

Present Indefinite: The letter is written. Past Indefinite: The letter was written.

Future Indefinite: The letter will be written.

Present Continuous: The letter is being written. Past Continuous: The letter was being written.

Future Continuous: The letter will be being written.

Present Perfect: The letter has been written.

Past Perfect: The letter had been written.

Future Perfect: The letter will have been written.

Глагол-сказуемое в страдательном залоге показывает, что подлежащее предложения является объектом действия со стороны другого лица или предмета. Сравните: / bought a book. — Я купил книгу.

The book was bought (by me). — Книга была куплена (мной).

Глаголы в страдательном залоге на русский язык переводятся:

1. глаголом быть + краткая форма причастия страдательного залога:

The letter was sent yesterday. Письмо было послано вчера.

2. глаголом с частицей -ся (-сь):

This problem was discussed last week. Эта проблема обсуждалась на прошлой неделе.

3. неопределенно-личным оборотом, т. е. глаголом
в действительном залоге 3 лица множественного числа, типа «говорят», «сказали»:

English is spoken in many countries. На английском языке говорят во многих странах.

4. глаголом в действительном залоге (при наличии исполнителя действия):

Pupils are taught at school by the teachers. Учеников учат в школе учителя.

Задание 12.1. Переведите и определите залог и время сказуемого.

1. Не left for Moscow. 2. The news will be of great interest. 3. They were speaking to him. 4. She studied many subjects. 5. The film was much spoken about. 6. New subjects will be studied next year. 7.1 am working now. 8. The text has been already written by them. 9. He studies at our college. 10. You are working, aren't you? 11. The text is being translated at the moment. 12. Do you work at this office? 13. When I saw him, he was going home. 14. They will have passed their exams by 3 o'clock. 15. This book was written by our teacher. 16. We shall be writing our tests at 10 o'clock. 17. The work v/ill have been done when he comes. 18. We translated this text. 19. The letter had been written before we came. 20. We shall inform you. 21. These toys are made by children. 22. Does he work here? 23. Is he working now? 24. The conference will be held in May. 25. Rostov was named after Dmitry Rostovsky. 26. What are you doing here? 27. This work must be done at once. 28. You may take my book. 29.1 am often asked at the lessons by the teacher.

Задание 12.2. Переведите и определите залог и время сказуемого.

1. They can be seen in our library every day. 2. The delegation was met at the airport. 3. The child was often left home alone. 4. These houses were built last year.

5. All letters had been written when we came. 6. This film is much spoken about. 7. The machine is being tested now. 8. His work has been already finished. 9. I was told to wait in the reception room. 10. Your letter will have been answered by Monday.

Задание 12.3. Раскройте скобки, поставьте глаголы в нужные формы страдательного залога.

1. I'm not reading these books today. They (return) to the library.'2. The paintings (exhibit) till the end of the month. 3. Why your home task (not do)?,4. The patient (take) to the hospital today, and (operate) tomorrow morning. 5. This room (use) only on special occasions. 6. Bicycles must not (leave) here. 7. This newspaper (not read) because the pages (not cut). 8. Dictionaries may not (use) at the examination.^-9. Usually the floor (sweep) every day, but it (not sweep) yesterday. 10. This book (leave) in the classroom yesterday. 11. Thousands of new houses (build) every year. 12. This room (not use) for a long time. 13. The children (take) to the circus tomor row.

Задание 12.4. Переведите предложения на английский язык.

1. Эта книга была прочитана всеми. 2. Письмо будет отправлено завтра. 3. Ее часто спрашивают? 4. На ваш вопрос ответят завтра. 5. Текст переводился вчера с двух до трех. 6. Работа только что закончена нами.

7. Эти книги будут использоваться до конца года.

8. Телеграмма уже получена? 9. О новой книге будут много говорить. 10. В нашем городе сейчас строится много новых зданий. 11. Ключи были утеряны вчера.
12. Мальчика возьмут в кино. 13. Вам сказали об этом?

Задание 12.5. Переведите на английский язык.

1. Этот текст будет переведен к 10 часам завтра. 2. Все картины, которые вы здесь видите, написаны знаменитым художником. 3. Письмо будет отправлено завтра. 4. Работа будет закончена вовремя. 5. За доктором послали? (to send for). У ребенка высокая температура. 6. Эта книга была написана давно. 7. Сотни новых домов будут построены к концу этого года. 8. Эта история давно забыта всеми. 9. Мне предложили очень интересную работу. 10. На него всегда можно положиться. 11. Ему не сказали об этом. 12. Нам показали прекрасный фильм. 13. Его пригласили на вечеринку. 14. Делегацию нужно встретить завтра в 9 часов утра в аэропорту.

Задание 12.6. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

ENGLISH WEATHER

The weather in England is very changeable A fine morning can change into a wet afternoon and evening. And a nasty morning can change to a fine afternoon. That is why it is natural for the English to use the comparison «as changeable as the weather» of a person who often changes his mood or opinion about something. «Other countries have a climate, in England we have weather». This statement is often made by the English to describe meteorological conditions of their country.

The English also say that they have three variants of weather: when it rains in the morning, when it rains in the afternoon or when it rains all day long.

The weather is the favourite conversational topic in England. When two Englishmen meet, their first words will be «How do you do?» or «How are you?» And after the reply «Very well, thank you; how are you? » the next remark is almost certain to be about the weather. When they go abroad the English often surprise people of other nationalities by this tendency to talk about the weather, a topic of conversation that other people do not find so interesting.

The best time of the year in England is spring (of course, it rains in spring, too). The two worst months in Britain are January and February. They are cold, damp and unpleasant. The best place in the world then is at home by the big fire in the fireplace.

Summer months are rather cold and there can be a lot of rainy days. So most people who look forward to summer holidays, plan to go abroad in summer to France or somewhere on the Continent.

The most unpleasant aspect of English weather is fog J and smog. This is extremely bad in big cities and espe-' cially in London. The fog spreads everywhere, it is in the streets and it creeps into the houses. Cars move along slowly, but still street accidents are frequent in the fog. People cannot see each other. They creep along the houses touching them with their hands not to lose their way or not to be run over by a car.

Words

changeable — изменчивый, неустойчивый

wet — сырой, мокрый

nasty — мерзкий, противный

comparison — сравнение

mood — настроение

opinion — мнение

statement — утверждение

meteorologica — метеорологический

remark — замечание

to go abroad — поехать за границу

damp — сырой, мокрый

nationality — национальность

fireplace — камин

to look forward to — с нетерпением ждать

the Continent — континент (Европа)

aspect — аспект, сторона

fog — туман

smog (smoke + fog) — с мог

extremely — чрезвычайно

to spread (spread, spread) — расстилать(ся)

to creep (crept, crept) — ползти, красться

accident — несчастный случай

frequent — частый

to lose way — заблудиться

to be run over by a car — попасть под машину

Questions

.1. Is the weather in England very changeable?

2. How often does it rain in England?

3. What do Englishmen often say to describe the weather of their country?

4. Englishmen often talk about weather. Do you find this topic of conversation interesting?

5. What is the worst time of the year in England?

6. When do Englishmen prefer to stay at home by the big fire?

7. How do the English spend their short English summer?

8. What are London smogs?

9. What kind of weather do you like best of all?

10.Which do you like better: when it's cold or hot?

11.What is the weather like today?

12.What is the weather forecast for tomorrow?

13.What is the weather like in your town in winter (summer, autumn, spring)?

МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ И ИХ ЗАМЕНИТЕЛИ

Модальные глаголы показывают отношение говорящего к действию, выраженному инфинитивом. Например, сравните:

You can speak English. Вы можете (умеете) говорить по-английски.

You must speak English. Вы должны говорить по-английски. You may speak English. Вы можете говорить по-английски. (Вас поймут.)

Как видим, в одном и том же предложении изменение модального глагола меняет смысл всего предложения, т. е. меняется отношение к действию, выраженному инфинитивом.

Модальные глаголы не имеют форм во всех временах, для этого употребляются их эквиваленты (заменители).

Вопросительные и отрицательные предложения с модальными глаголами строятся без вспомогательных глаголов: Can you help me? — Yes, I can.— No, I can't. Вы можете помочь мне? — Да. —Нет.

К основным модальным относятся глаголы:

Модальный глагол сап

can — мочь, быть в состоянии, could — прошедшее время предполагает наличие физической, умственной и прочих возможностей, позволяющих сделать что-либо:

J can swim. — Я могу (я умею) плавать.

J could translate this text. — (Я мог, был в состоянии) перевести этот текст.

Вежливую просьбу можно начинать с модального глагола could:

Could you help me, please! — He могли бы вы помочь мне, пожалуйста!

В будущем времени у глагола can есть заменитель — конструкция to be able to (быть в состоянии что-либо сделать): J shall be able to help you when I am free. — Я смогу помочь тебе, когда освобожусь.

Модальный глагол may

may — иметь возможность, получить разрешение (делать что-либо), прошедшее время —might

May I help you? — Молено вам помочь? — Yes, you may. — Да, можно.

В будущем времени у модального глагола may есть заменитель — конструкция to be allowed to (получить разрешение сделать что-либо).

Не will be allowed to take the book. Ему разрешат взять книгу.

Модальный глагол must

must — должен, обязан.

You must write it down now. — Вы должны написать это сейчас.

Заменителями глагола must являются глаголы to have to и to be to, которые имеют некоторые дополнительные оттенками значения. Глагол to have to означает долженствование, вызванное обстоятельствами, вынужденную необходимость, в то время как глагол

to be to — долженствование, связанное с расписанием, планом или заранее сделанной договоренностью. She had to stay at home. — Она вынуждена была (ей пришлось) остаться дома.

The train was to arrive at 8 in the evening— Поезд должен был прибыть в 8 вечера. (По расписанию).

После модальных глаголов и некоторых их эквивалентов инфинитив употребляется без частицы to.

Заменителями модального глагола must являются также модальные глаголы ought to, should (в значении совета, рекомендации, упрека) и shall (испрашивается разрешение на совершение действия).

Children ought to obey their parents. — Дети должны слушать своих родителей.

You should enter the Institute. Вам следует поступить в институт (рекомендация, совет),

В сочетании с перфектным инфинитивом глагол should выражает сожаление о невыполненном действии и переводится «следовало бы».

You should have helped them. Вам следовало бы помочь им. (Но вы не сделали этого).

Shall I read? Мне следует читать?

Модальный глагол would

Модальный глагол would может иметь следующие значения:

1) Вежливая просьба. Would you help me? He поможете ли вы мне?

2) Повторяемость действия в прошлом.

Не would often help me. Он, бывало, часто помогал мне.

3) Стойкое нежелание совершать какие-либо действия. Не wouldn't listen to me. Он никак не хотел слушать меня.

4) Модальный глагол need — «нужно, надо» употребляется, в основном, в отрицательных предложениях. You needn't do it now. Вам не нужно делать это сейчас.

Задание 13.1. Переведите предложения. Проанализируйте употребление модальных глаголов в следующих предложениях.

1. Who can answer my question?

2. Nobody could translate this text.

3. He ought to do this task at once.

4. Must I attend this meeting? — No, you needn't.

5. You should have shown your notes to the teacher.

6. I asked him, but he wouldn't listen to me.

7. They should visit her, she is in the hospital.

8. Last summer we would often go to the country.

9. Your son can do this work himself.

10.Would you tell me the way to the station?

11.Your friend might have informed us.

12.May I leave for a while? — Yes, you may.

13.She should be more attentive at the lessons.

14.14.You needn't come so early.

Задание 13.2. Переведите предложения на русский язык.

1. We have to stay at home. 2. He was allowed to take this book. 3. Who is able to do this work? 4. He had to leave for Moscow earlier. 5. We are to take exams in June. 6. Am I allowed to visit you? 7. They were able to do this work in time. 8.1 shall be able to pass my examinations. 9. She will be allowed to watch TV. 10.1 have to come in time. 11. The train is to come soon. 12. Are you able to drive a car?

Задание 13.3. Замените модальные глаголы соответствующими эквивалентами.

1. Не couldn't explain anything. 2. You must not stay here. 3. Can you swim? 4. You may take these books. 5. They can run quickly. 6. She might work in our room. 7. Who can read this text? 8. They must go there tomorrow. 9. May I go to the cinema? 10. We must meet at 7 o'clock.

Задание 13.4. Вставьте необходимые модальные глаголы.

1.1... not go to the theatre with them last night, I... revise the grammar rules and the words for the test. 2. My friend lives a long way from his office and... get up early. 3. All of us... be in time for classes. 4. When my friend has his English, he... stay at the office after work. He (not)... stay at the office on Tuesday, Thursday and Saturday and... get home early. 5.... you... work hard to do well in your English? 6. «... we discuss this question now?» «No, we.... We... do it tomorrow afternoon». 7. I'm glad you... come. 8. «... you... come and have dinner with us tomorrow?» «I'd love to». 9. «Please send them this article ». « Oh,... I do it now? »

Задание 13.5. Переведите на английский язык, используя модальные глаголы.

1. Мы обязательно должны писать диктант сегодня? — Да, завтра мы будем учить новые слова. 2. Вчера мне пришлось ответить на все эти письма. 3. Виктора тоже пригласить на обед? — Да, сделайте это, пожалуйста. 4. Вам пришлось остаться дома, потому что была плохая погода? 5. Вы обязательно должны прийти и посмотреть нашу новую квартиру.— С удовольствием. 6. Я рад, что мне не пришлось заканчивать эту работу вчера. 7. Я не люблю поздно ложиться спать, но иногда мне приходится. 8. Можно мне пойти погулять сейчас? — Нет, нельзя. Ты должен скоро ложиться спать. 9. Вам следует навестить вашего друга. Он вчера не пришел на урок. 10. Почему ты не пришла? — Я не могла, я должна была помочь маме по дому. 11. Вам не нужно идти в библиотеку, у нас много книг дома, и вы можете взять любую, какую хотите.

Задание 13.6. Заполните пропуски соответствующими модальными глаголами.

(must, should, would, ought to, needn't, can, could, may, might)

1. They... not do this work themselves 2. You... take my dictionary. 3. You don't look well, you... consult the doctor. 4. Why... I give you my money? 5. She... not speak any foreign language. 6. He... to help them, they need his help. 7.... you tell me the time? 8.... I go with you? No, you.... 9. Your daughter... have told about it. 10. In winter we... often skate. 11. You... not miss your classes. 12.... you play the piano before?

Задание 13.7. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

LEARNING FOREIGN LANGUAGES

The problem of learning foreign languages is very important today. Students should learn foreign languages. They became important especially at the present time. Foreign languages are needed as the main and most efficient means of information exchange between the people of our planet.

Today English is the language of the world. Over 350 (three hundred and fifty) million people speak it as a mother tongue. The native speakers of English live in Great Britain, in the United States of America, Australia and New Zealand. English is one of the official languages in the Irish Republic, Canada and South African Republic. As a second language it is used in the former British and US colonies.

It is the major international language for communication in such areas as science, technology, business and mass media. English ought to be used as one of the official languages of the United Nations Organisation and other political organisations. It is the language of computer software, literature, education, modern music, international tourism.

Learning a foreign language is not an easy thing. It is a long and slow process that takes a lot of time and patience. But every educated person, every good specialist has to know English, because it is absolutely necessary nowadays.

It is well known that reading books in the original, talking with the English speaking people will help a lot. When learning a foreign language you are to learn the culture and history of the native speakers. You may learn any foreign language. They are all important.

Words

especially — особенно efficient — эффективный

major — главный means — средство exchange — обмен area — область

software — компьютерные программы patience — терпение necessary — необходимый

native speakers — носители языка (те, для кого язык родной)

Questions

1. Why do we need to learn foreign languages now?

2. How many people in the world speak English?

3. What are English-speaking countries?

4. In what areas is English mostly used?

5. What are the difficulties in learning foreign languages?

6. Is the knowledge of English necessary nowadays and why?

Teem

I. Определите, к какой части речи относится выделенное слово:

1. Usually he sits near the window.

2. Our college has a big building.

3. Newton was an outstanding scientist.

4. This method is widely used.

5. Where do you work?

6. Do you like your work?

7. Our students do a lot of their work in the laboratories.

8. There are some departments at the Institute.

9. Варианты:

1) существительное

2)глагол

3)прилагательное

4)местоимение

5)наречие

6)числительное

II. Найдите а) подлежащее и б) сказуемое в данном предложении:

9. In the nearest future the pupils are to be tested in all subjects.

III. Вставьте нужный предлог:

1.1 go... the college... bus.

2. Many students... our college study well.

3. ... leaving the college I can try to enter the University.

4. Our college trains specialists... work... different spheres.

Варианты: 1) at; 2) of; 3)for; 4) in;

5) to; 6) by;

7) after; 8) from

IV. Употребите нужную форму глаголов to be и to have:

1. Prof. Ivanov... our lecturer. 2.1... a first-year student now. 3.He...bornin l985.

4. The students... t the laboratory yesterday.

5. My brother... two children.

6. They... a lot of work to do this week.

7. Варианты: 1) am; 2) is;

3) are; 4) was;

5) were; 6) have;

7) has; 8) had.

V. Употребите нужный модальный глаго." или его эквивалент:

1. You... consult your director.

2. ...I go with you? — Please, do.

3. The train...come at 7 o'clock yesterday.

4. The students... come to all their lectures.

5. They... speak English and don't know French.

СЛОЖНОЕ ДОПОЛНЕНИЕ

(Complex object.)

Сложное дополнение — это сочетание существительного или местоимения в объектном падеже (напр. me, him, us, them) с инфинитивом или причастием I. Существует в трех основных вариантах:

1. С инфинитивом без частицы to или с причастием 1 после глаголов восприятия see I saw him drive the car. I saw them working in the

lab. watch We watched the plane land. We watched the

children playing in the yard. notice Nobody noticed him go out. He didn't notice that

happen. feel She felt somebody touch her hand. They didn't feel

the train start. hear I didn't hear you come into the room. I heard her

playing piano. I saw him enter the house. — Я видел, как он вошел в дом.

/ saw him entering the house. — Я видел, как он входил в дом.

В первом случае (вышеперечисленные глаголы с инфинитивом без частицы to) подчеркивается факт

действия, во втором (эти же глаголы с причастием I) — процесс действия.

2. С инфинитивом без частицы to после глаголов
to let: Don't let them play in the street.

to make: Don't make me laugh.

3. С инфинитивом с частицей to после глаголов
to want I want you to help me.

to expect I expect you to come in time.

to believe I believe her to be a very good teacher.

to know I know him to be a good student.

to advise I advise you to enter the institute.

to consider English climate is considered to be mild.

to order He is ordered not to be late.

to allow They allow to use dictionaries at the exam.

to like / would like you to finish your work.

to find I find your story to be very interesting.

Задание 14.1. Раскройте скобки.

1. He made me (do) it all over again. 2. Her father made her (learn) the lessons. 3. If you want us (make) the work quickly you should let us (start) at once. 4. Would you like me (read) now? 5. They won't let us (leave) the classroom till our control work has been checked. 6. He wouldn't let the children (play) in his study. 7. Please let me (know) the results of your exam as soon as possible. 8. He made us (wait) for two hours .9.1 let him (go) early as he had done his task. 10. I'd like him (enter) the university but I can't make him (do) it. 11.1 want her (learn) English. 12.1 heard the door (open) and saw my friend (come) into the room. 13. I heard her (play) the piano. 14.1 saw him (go out) of the house. 15. The teacher advised us (use) dictionaries. 16. Her father doesn't allow her (go) to the cinema alone. 17. We expect our basketball team (win) next "game. 18. We don't want you (tell) anything. 19.1 saw them (open) the window. 20. That is too difficult for you to do, let me (help) you.

Задание 14.2. Переведите на английский язык.

1. Вы ожидаете, работа будет сделана скоро? 2. Вы хотите, чтобы мы встретились сегодня? 3. Вы хотите, чтобы дети играли здесь? 4. Мы ожидаем, что они хорошо проведут у нас время. 5. Я хочу, чтобы он закончил эту работу. 6. Мы слышали, что она знает, когда мы сдаем экзамен. 7. Вы хотите, чтобы мы обсудили этот вопрос сегодня? 8. Мы ожидаем, что на этом месте будет построен новый дом. 9. Вы хотели бы, чтобы работа была сделана сегодня?

ПРИДАТОЧНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ УСЛОВИЯ И ВРЕМЕНИ, ДЕЙСТВИЕ КОТОРЫХ ОТНЕСЕНО К БУДУЩЕМУ

В придаточных предложениях условия и времени с союзами

if (если),

when (когда),

after (после),

before (перед тем, как),

as soon as (как только),

unless (если не),

until (до тех пор, пока не),

будущее время заменяется формой настоящего времени, но на русский язык переводится будущим, например:

If you help me (придаточное предл. условия), I shall do this work on time (главное предл.). — Если ты поможешь мне, я сделаю эту работу вовремя.

As soon as I am free, I'll come to you. — Как только я освобожусь, я приду к тебе.

We shall not begin until you come. — Мы не начнем, пока ты не придешь.

Задание 14.3. Раскройте скобки.

1. Не (go) out when the weather (get) warmer. 2. I (wait) for you until you (come) back from school. 3. I'm afraid the train (start) before we (come) to the station. 4. We (go) to the country tomorrow if the weather (to be) fine. 5. We (not pass) the examination next year if we not (work) much harder. 6. If you {not drive) more carefully you (have) an accident. 7. You (be) late if you (not take) a taxi. 8.1 (finish) reading this book before I (go) to bed. 9. You must (send) us a telegram as soon as you (arrive). 10. We (have) a picnic tomorrow if it (be) a fine day. 11. We (go) out when it (stop) raining. 12. We (not to have) dinner until you (come). 13. I'm sure they (write) to us when they (know) our new address.

Задание 14.4. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

MASS MEDIA

Mass media (that is the press, the radio and television) play an important role in the life of society. They inform, educate and entertain people. They also influence the way people look at the events and sometimes make them change their views.

Millions of people watch TV and read newspapers in their spare time. People listen to the radio while driving

a car. On the radio one can hear music, plays, news and various discussions of current events. Lots of radio or TV games and films attract large audience.

Newspapers give more detailed reviews of political life, culture and sports. Basically they are read by the people who are subscribers and those who are interested in politics.

There is a lot of advertising in mass media. Many TV channels, radio stations and newspapers are owned by different corporations. The owners can advertise whatever they choose.

But we cannot say that mass media do not try to raise the cultural level of people or to develop their tastes. Mass media bring to millions of homes not only entertaiment and news but also cultural and educational programs.

There is a great number of TV channels, cable TV, satellite TV and lots of radio stations and newspapers now. Words

mass media — средства массовой информации

society — общество

to entertain — развлекать

to influence — влиять

events — события

view — точка зрения

spare time — свободное время

current events — зд. новости

audience — аудитория

detailed review — подробный обзор

subscribers — подписчики

advertising — реклама

to own — владеть

satellite — спутник

Questions:

1) What is mass media?

2) How does mass media influence people?

3) What is the difference between radio and TV programmes?

4) Does the audience of TV and radio differ?

5) Do you think that advertising is useful?

Грамматика Причастие и герундий. Их отличие

Причастие — неличная форма глагола, промеж;, -точная между глаголом и прилагательным:

The boy playing in the yard is my brother. — Мальчик, (какой?) играющий во дворе — мой брат.

Причастие I (Participle I)

Причастие I (причастие настоящего времени), образованное при помощи окончания -ing, имеет активную и страдательную формы: активная (несовершенный вид) — asking, активная (совершенный вид) — having asked, страдательная (несовершенный) — being asked, страдательная (совершенный) — having been asked.

Причастие I употребляется в функции: 1. Определения:

The man sitting at the table is our teacher. — Человек, сидящий за столом — наш учитель.

The houses being built in our town are not very high. — Дома, строящиеся в нашем городе, невысоки. 2. Обстоятельства:

Going home I met an old friend. — Идя домой, я встретил старого друга.

Having finished work I went home. — Закончив работу, я пошел домой.

Причастие II (Participlell)

Причастие II (причастие прошедшего времени) всегда пассивно. Образуется оно прибавлением суффикса -ed к основе правильного глагола или путем чередования звуков в корне неправильного глагола.

Причастие II употребляется в функции:

1. Определения.

The book translated from English is very interesting. — Книга, переведенная с английского языка, интересная.

2. Обстоятельства (причины и времени): Given the task he began to work. — Когда ему дали

задание он начал работать.

Употребление герундия и его отличие от причастия I

Причастие — неличная форма глагола, промежуточная между глаголом и прилагательным.

Герундий является неличной формой глагола, промежуточной между существительным и глаголом:

Smoking is harmful. — Курение (что?) вредно.

Иными словами, причастие—в большей степени «прилагательное» по своим функциям, герундий — « существительное ».

Герундий употребляется:

1. в качестве подлежащего: Reading is useful. Чтение полезно.

2. как часть сказуемого после глаголов to finish, to start, to continue, to go on, to keep и др.

He started reading the book. Он начал читать книгу

3. как предложное дополнение: / am fond of reading. Я люблю читать

4. как прямое дополнение: Do you mind my reading here? Вы не против моего чтения здесь?

5. как обстоятельство времени: After reading he closed the book. После чтения он закрыл книгу.

6. как обстоятельство образа действия: Instead of reading he went to the movies. Вместо чтения он пошел в кино.

Активная форма герундия: giving, beating и т. д. Пассивная форма герундия: being given, being beaten и т. д.

Задание 14.5. Раскройте скобки, используя герундий, переведите предложения:

1. The soil in the flower-pot is very dry, it needs (water). 2. You don't need (put on) your coat because it's very warm outside. 3. My flat wants (repair). 4. Famous actors needn't (introduce) themselves. 5. The blackboard is dirty, it needs (wipe). 6.. The shoes need (polish). 7. Your shirt has a hole, it wants (mend). 8. You room needs (tidy). 9. The room needed (clean). 10. (learn) foreign languages is very useful. 11. My hair wants (cut) but I never have time to do it 12. Students need (cheer up) before their exams.

УСЛОВНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ

• Условные предложения могут быть следующими:

1. предложения реального условия;

2. предложения нереального условия. Употребление глагольных форм в этих предложениях зависит от степени реальности и времени действия, выраженного глаголом.

Предложения реального условия: (Изъявительное

наклонение).

а) условие относится к будущему:

If the weather tefine he will go to the country. Если погода будет хорошей, он поедет за город.

If I learn his address I shall write to him. — Если я узнаю его адрес, я ему напишу.

б) условие относится к прошлому:

If the weather was fine he went to the country. Если погода была хорошей, он ездил за город.

Предложения нереального условия: (Сослагательное наклонение)

Сослагательное наклонение выражает возможность, нереальность, предположительность действия.

Предложения нереального условия:

а) действие относится к настоящему или будущему:

If I knew his address I would write to him. — Если бы я знал его адрес (сейчас), я написал бы ему (сейчас или в ближайшем будущем).

If the weather were fine he would go to the country.

Если бы погода (сейчас) была хорошей, он бы поехал за город.

Глагол в придаточном предложении — в форме Past Indefinite, в главном — в форме Future in the Past.

б) действие относится к прошлому:

If the weather had been fine yesterday he would have gone to the country.

Если бы погода была вчера хорошей, он бы поехал за город.

В случае, если действие, описываемое сослагательным наклонением, относится к прошедшему времени, в главном предложении используется форма будущего совершенного с точки зрения прошедшего Future Perfect in the Past, а в придаточном — прошедшее совершенное Past Perfect.

If I had known his address I would have written to him. — Если бы я знал его адрес (в прошлом), я написал бы ему (в прошлом же).

J wish I lived not far from here, (настоящее время).— Жаль, что я не живу поблизости.

/ wish I had lived not far from here (прошедшее время). — Жаль, что я не жил поблизости.

Задание 15.1. Переведите на русский язык следующие предложения:

1. If I came later I would be late for the lesson. 2. If he had known the time-table he wouldn't have missed the train. 3. It would be better if you learned the oral topics. 3. I wish I had known this before the examination. 4. I

would have come to you if you had not lived so far away. 5. If I had seen you yesterday I would have given you my text-book. 6, If I were in your place I wouldn't buy the tickets beforehand. 7. If I had known that you needed help I would have helped you.

Задание 15.2. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

Computer is a device for processing information. Computer has no intelligence by itself and is called hardware. A computer system is a combination of four elements:

· Hardware

· Software

· Procedures

· Data/information .

Software are the programmes that tell the hardware how to perform a task. Without software instructions^ " the hardware doesn't know what to do.

The basic job of the computer is the processing¹ of information. Computers take information in the form of instructions called programs and symbols called data. After that they perform various" mathematical and logical operations, and then give the results (information). Computer is used to convert data into information. Computer is also used to store information in the digital form.

Working vocabulary:

device — устройство intelligence — разум hardware — оборудование software — программы

processing — обработка

procedures — процедуры, операции

perform — выполнять

manner — манера, способ

various — различные

purpose — цель

to convert — превращать

data — данные

to store — хранить

digital — цифровой

General understanding (Общее понимание текста):

1) What does the term «computer» describe?

2) Is computer intelligent?

3) What are four components of computer system?

4) What is software?

5) What's the difference between the hardware and software?

6) In what way terms «data» and «information» differ?

7) How does computer convert data into information?

Задание 15.3. Какие из приведенных ниже терминов имеют аналоги в русском языке?

computer, diskette, metal, processor, scanner, information, data, microphone, printer, modem, Internet.

Задание 15.4. Какие из приведенных ниже утверждений верны/неверны? Аргументируйте свой ответ, опираясь на текст.

1) Computer is made of electronic components so it is referred to as electronic device.

2) Computer has.no intelligence until software is loaded.

3) There are four elements of computer system: hardware, software, diskettes and data.

4) Without software instructions hardware doesn't know what to do.

5) The software is the most important component because it is made by people.

6) The user inputs data into computer to get information as an output.

Задание 15.5. Заполните пропуски:

1) Information in the form of instruction is called a...

2) The basic job of the computer is the ...

a) program

b) processing of information

Задание 15.6. Переведите текст. Перескажите текст, используя рабочий словарь.

WHAT IS HARDWARE?

Webster's dictionary gives us the following definition of the hardware — the devices composing a computer system.

Computer hardware can be divided into four categories:

1) input hardware

2) processing hardware

3) storage hardware

4) output hardware.

Input hardware

Input hardware collects data and converts them into a form_suitable for computer processing. The most common input device is a keyboard. It looks very much like a typewriter. The mouse is a hand-held device connected to the computer by a small cable. As the mouse is rolled across the desktop, the cursor moves across the screen. When the cursor reaches the desired location, the user usually pushes a button on the mouse once or twice to give a command to the computer.

Another type of input hardware is optic-electronic scanner. Microphone and video camera can be also used to input data into the computer.

Processing hardware

Processing hardware directs the execution of software instructions in the computer. The most common components of processing hardware are the central processing unit and main memory.

The central processing unit (CPU) is the brain of the computer. It reads and interprets software instructions and coordinates the processing.

Memory is the component of the computer in which information is stored. There are two types of computer memory: RAM and ROM.

RAM (random access memory) is the memory, used for creating, loading and running programs

ROM (read only memory) is computer memory used to hold programmed instructions to the system.

The more memory you have in your computer, the more operations you can perform.

Storage hardware

The purpose of storage hardware is to store computer instructions and data and retrieve when needed for processing. Storage hardware stores data as electromagnetic signals. The most common ways of storing data are Hard disk, floppy disk and CD-ROM.

Hard disk is a rigid disk coated with magnetic material, for storing programs and relatively large amounts of data.

Floppy disk (diskette) — a thin, usually flexible plastic disk coated-with magnetic material, for storing temporary computer data and programs. There are two formats for floppy disks: 5.25' and 3.5'.

3.5' disks are formatted 1.4 megabytes and are widely used.

CD-ROM (compact disc read only memory) is a compact disc on which a large amount of digitized data can be stored. CD-ROMs are very popular now because of the growing speed which CD-ROM drives can provide nowadays. ^

Output hardware

The purpose of output hardware is to provide the user with the means to view information produced by the computer system. Information is in either hardcopy or softcopy form. Hardcopy output can be held in your hand, such as paper with text (word or numbers) or graphics printed on it. Softcopy output is displayed on a monitor.

Monitor is a display screen for viewing computer data, television programs, etc. Printer is a computer output device that produces a paper copy of data or graphics.

Modem is an example of communication hardware —

an electronic device that makes possible the transmission of data to or from computer via telephone or other 1 communication lines.

Hardware comes in many configurations, depending on what you are going to do on your computer.

Working vocabulary (В ваш, словарь):

input hardware — устройства ввода данных

to convert — преобразовывать

suitable — подходящий, пригодный

mouse — «мышь»

to roll — катать, перекатывать

to reach — достигать

keyboard — клавиатура

cursor — курсор

processing hardware — устройства обработки данных

execution — выполнение

to direct — управлять

central processing unit (CPU), microprocessor — микропроцессор

brain — мозг

to interpret — переводить, интерпретировать

RAM — ОЗУ (оперативное запоминающее устройство)

ROM — ПЗУ (постоянное запоминающее устройство)

storage hardware — устройства хранения данных -

to retrieve — извлекать

hard disk — жесткий диск, «винчестер»

CD-ROM — накопитель на компакт-дисках (CD)

CD-ROM drives — дисководы CD-ROM

digitized — в цифровом виде

graphics — графика

temporary — временный

output hardware — устройства отображения информации

printer — печатающее устройство, принтер

scanner — сканирующее устройство, сканер

modem — модем

purpose — цель

to connect — соединять

to provide — обеспечивать

to affect — влиять

amount — количество

General understanding (Общее понимание текста):

What is the Webster's dictionary definition of the
hardware?

1. What groups of hardware exist?

2. What is input hardware? What are the examples

of input hardware?

4. What is the mouse designed for?

5. What is processing hardware? What are the basic types of memory used in a PC?

6. What is a storage hardware? What is CD-ROM used for? Can a user record his or her data on a CD? What kind of storage hardware can contain more information: CD-ROM, RAM or ROM?

7. What is modem used for? Can a PC user communicate with other people without a modem?

Задание 15.7. Какие из приведенных ниже утверждений верны/неверны? Аргументируйте свой ответ, опираясь на текст.

1. The purpose of the input hardware is to collect data and convert them into a form suitable for computer processing.

2. Scanner is used to input graphics only.

3. CPU reads and interprets software and prints results on paper.

4. User is unable to change the contents of ROM.

5. Printer is a processing hardware because it shows the information.

6. Modem is an electronic device that makes possible the transmission of data from one computer to another via telephone or other communication lines.

7. The purpose of storage hardware is to store computer instructions and data.

Задание 15.8. Дайте определения, используя текст.

1) CPU

2) ROM

3) Floppy-disk

4) CD-ROM

5) Printer

6) Modem

7) Hard disk

8) Keyboard

Задание 15.9. Что из нижеперечисленного является оборудованием? 1. program

1. mouse

2. CPU

3. printer

4. modem

5. instruction

6. cursor or the pointer

7. keyboard

8. symbol

Задание 15.10. Прочитайте и переведите текст. WINDOWS 98

Windows 98 is an operational system based on the expanding" windows principle which uses icons to graphically represent files. It's very easy to use Internet if you have Windows 98 on your computer.

Windows 98 makes the way you and your computer interact with Internet more easy. Most everyday tasks are easier to do than before. For example, the second mouse button has become a powerful weapon. Recycle Bin makes it easier to recover accidentally deleted files. Your computer probably will crash less with Windows 98. Microsoft says that it is moving forward to the time when we will all think more about our data and less about the programs used to create them.

Window 98 plug"-and-play capability makes it easy to upgrade your computer hardware. A new Windows 98 shortcuts capability makes it easy to reach frequently used files.

Working vocabulary (В ваш словарь):

expanding" windows principle — принцип расширяющихся окон

icons — иконки

represent — представлять

to interact — взаимодействовать

weapon — оружие

Recycle Bin — корзина

to recover — восстановить

deleted files — удаленные файлы

to crash — зависать, давать сбои

plug-n-play — подключай и работай

upgrade - апгрейд (увеличение возможностей компьютера)

support — поддержка I

necessity — необходимость to move forward — двигаться вперед shortcut capability - возможность нахождения кратчайшего пути frequently — часто

COMPUTER OPERATIONS. TYPES OF DATA

Much of the processing computers can be divided into two general types of operation. Arithmetic operations are computations with numbers such as addition, subtraction, and other mathematical procedures. Early computers performed mostly arithmetic operations, which gave the false impression that only engineers and scientists could benefit from computers. Of equal importance is the computers ability to compare two values to determine if one is larger than, smaller than, or equal to the other. This is called a logical operation. The comparison may take place between numbers, letters, sounds, or even drawings. The processing of the computer is based on the computer's ability to perform logical and arithmetic operations.

Instructions must be given to the computer to tell it how to process the data it receives and the format needed for output and storage. The ability to follow the program sets computers apart from most tools. However, new tools ranging from typewriters to microwave ovens have embedded computers, or built-in computers. An embedded computer can accept data to use several options in it's program, but the program itself cannot be changed. This makes these devices flexible and convenient but not the embedded computers itself.

Types of data

With the advent of new computer applications and hardware, the definition of data has expanded to include many types.

Numeric data consists of numbers and decimal points, as well as the plus (+) and minus (-) signs. Both arithmetic operations and logical operations are performed on numeric data. This means that numbers can be used for calculations as well as sorted and compared to each other.

Text, or textual data, can contain any combination of letters, numbers and special characters. Sometimes textual data is known as alphanumeric data.

Various forms of data that we can hear and see makes up audio-visual data. The computer can produce sounds, music and even human voice. It can also accept audio-information as an input. Data can also take form of drawings and video sequences.

Physical data is captured from the environment. For example, light, temperature and pressure are all types of physical data. In many large buildings, computer systems process several kinds of physical data to regulate operations. Computers can set off security alarms, control temperature and humidity, or turn lights on and off, all in response to physical data. These applications increase people's safety and save the time and money.

Working vocabulary (В ваш словарь):

data — данные

to divide — делить

to compute — вычислять

computation — вычисление

arithmetic operation — арифметическая операция

logical operation — логическая операция

addition — сложение

subtraction — вычитание

false — ложный

to benefit — получать пользу

equal — равный

to determine — определять

to compare — сравнивать

comparison — сравнение

value — величина

tool — инструмент

microwave oven — микроволновая печь

embedded- встроенный

accept — принимать

flexible — гибкий, изменчивый

advent — приход

to expand — расширять

sequence — последовательность

increase — увеличивать

decimal point — десятичная точка

save — спасать, зд. экономить

General understanding

1) In what two major parts could be computer opera
tions divided?

2) What are arithmetic operations?

3) What are logical operations?

4) Can computer compare two graphical objects?

5) What makes computer so different from other tools?

6) What is embedded computer? What modern devic-" es have embedded computers?

7) How many are types of data?

8) What is physical data?

Задание 16.1. Какие из приведенных ниже утверждений верны/неверны. Аргументируйте свой ответ, опираясь на текст.

1) Arithmetic operations are operations with numbers — subtraction and division.

2) Early computers gave false impression about their capabilities.

3) Logical operations are computer's ability to compare two values.

4) The major difference between the computer and tools lies in the flexibility of the program.

5) Embedded computers are found only in typewriters and ovens.

6) Microwave oven's program is flexible and could be changed because of the embedded computer.

7) Numeric data consist of numbers, decimal points and the (+) and (-) signs.

8) Computer can accept human speech as an audio-visual input data.

Задание 16.2. Дайте определение, используя словарь:

1) Software

2) Arithmetic operation

3) Logical operation

4) Numeric data

5) Textual data

6) Physical data

7) Audio-visual data

Задание 16.3. Заполните пропуски:

1) ... are computations with numbers such as addition, subtraction, and other mathematical procedures.

2) The computers ability to compare two values to determine if one is larger than, smaller than, or equal to the other is called a...

1) New tools ranging from typewriters to microwave ovens have embedded computers, or ... computers

2) An ... can accept data to use several options in it's program, but the program itself cannot be changed.

3) ... can be used for calculations as well as sorted and compared to each other.

4) ... can contain any combination of letters, numbers and special characters.

5) Various forms of data that we can hear and see makes up... which is captured from the environment.

a) logical operation

b)Text, or textual data

c) audio-visual data

d)Physical data

e) Arithmetic operations

f) Built-in

g) numbers

Types of Software

A computer to complete a job requires mare than just the actual equipment or hardware we see and touch. It requires Software — programs for directing the operation of a computer or electronic data. Software is the final computer system component. These computer programs instruct the hardware how to conduct processing. The computer is merely a general-purpose machine which requires specific software to perform a given task. Computers can input, calculate, compare, and output data as information. Software determines the order in which these operations are performed.

Programs usually fall in one of two categories: system software and applications software.

System software controls standard internal computer activities. An operating system, for example, is a collection of system programs that aid in the operation of a computer regardless of the application software being used. When a computer is first turned on, one of the systems programs is booted or loaded into the computers memory. This software contains information about memory capacity, the model of the processor, the disk drives to be used, and more. Once the system software is loaded, the applications software can start to work.

System programs are designed for the specific pieces of hardware. These programs are called drivers and coordinate peripheral hardware and computer activities. User needs to install a specific driver in order to activate his or her peripheral device. For example, if you intend to buy a printer or a scanner you need to worry in advance about the driver program which, though, commonly go along with your device. By installing the driver you «teach» your mainboard to «understand» the newly attached part.

Applications software satisfies your specific need. The developers of application software rely mostly on marketing research strategies trying to do their best to attract more users (buyers) to their software. As the productivity of the hardware has increased greatly in recent years, the programmers nowadays tend to include all kinds of gimmicks in one program to make software interface look more attractive to the user. These class of programs is the most numerous and perspective from the marketing point of view.

Data communication within and between computers systems is handled by system software.

Communications software transfers data from one computer system to another. These programs usually provide users with data security and error checking along with physically transferring data between the two computer's memories. During the past five years the developing electronic network communication has stimulated more and more companies to produce various communication software, such as Web-Browsers for Internet.

Working vocabulary

to direct — управлять

to conduct — проводить

to complete — завершать

equipment — оборудование

internal — внутренний

to require — требовать

control — управление

specific — конкретный, опредленный

general-purpose — многоцелевой

aid — помощь

regard — отношение

regardless — безотносительно, несмотря на

memory capacity — вместимость памяти

to install — устанвливать, встраивать, инсталлировать

to transfer — переводить, переносить

to provide with — обеспечивать чем-либо

to secure — обеспечивать безопасность

security — безопасность

to develop — развивать, проявлять

developer — разработчик

to check — проверять

attach — присоединять

Web-browser — «броузер» (программа, Позволяющая пользователю искать.и считывать информацию с глобальной электронной сети Internet)

peripheral — периферийный

to boot — запускать

to handle — управлять

gimmick — зд. приманка

General understanding (Общее понимание текста):

1) What is a software?

2) In what two basic groups software (programs) could be divided?

3) What is system software for?

4) What is an operating system — system or application software?

5) What is a «driver»?

6) What is application software?

7) What are application software for?

8) What is the tendency in application software mar ket in recent years?

9) What is the application of the communication sof t ware?

Задание 16.4. Что из перечисленного является программным обеспечением?

1) Program

2) Mouse

3) CPU

4) Word processor

5) Modem

6) Web-browser

7) Operating system

8) Scanner

9) Developer

10) Equipment

Задание 16.5. Какие из приведенных ниже утверждений верны/неверны? Аргументируйте свой ответ, опираясь на текст.

1) Computer programs only instruct the hardware how to handle data storage.

2) System software controls internal computer activities.

3) System software is very dependable on the type of application software being used.

4) The information about memory capacity, the model of the processor and disk drives is unavailable for system software.

5) The driver is a special device usually used by car drivers for Floppy-disk driving.

6) It is very reasonable to ask for a driver when you buy a new piece of hardware.

7) Software developers tend to make their products very small and with poor interface to save computer re sources.

8) Communication software is of great need now be cause of the new advances in communication technologies.

9) Application software is merely a general-purpose instrument.

10) Web-browsers is the class of software for electronic communication through the network.

Задание 16.6. Найдите эквиваленты в тексте:

1) Программное обеспечение определяет порядок выполнения операций.

2) Прикладные программы выполняют поставленную вами конкретную задачу (удовлетворяют вашу потребность).

3) Этот класс программ самый многочисленный и перспективный с точки зрения маркетинга.

4) Системные программы предназначены для конкретных устройств компьютерной системы.

5) Устанавливая драйвер, вы «учите» систему «понимать» вновь присоединенное устройство.

6) Когда компьютер впервые включается, одна из системных программ должна быть загружена в его память,

7) Развитие систем электронной коммуникации за последние пять лет стимулировала много к производству соответствующих программных продуктов возрастающим числом компаний-разработчиков.

Задание 16.7. Дайте определение, используя словарь:

1) Software

2) Driver

3) Application software

4) Operating system

5) Communication software

6) Computer

7) Peripheral device

8) Operating system

Operating systems

When computers were first introduced in the 1940's and 50's, every program written had to provide instructions that told the computer how to use devices such as the printer, how to store information on a disk, as well as how to perform several other tasks not necessarily related to the program. The additional program instructions for working with hardware devices were very complex, and time-consuming. Programmers soon realized it would be smarter to develop one program that could control the computer's hardware, which others programs could have used when they needed it. With that, the first operating system was born.

Today, operating systems control and manage the use of hardware devices such as the printer or mouse. They also provide disk management by letting you store information in files. The operating system also lets you run programs such as the basic word processor. Lastly, the operating system provides several of its own commands that help you to use the computer.

DOS is the most commonly used PC operating system. ' DOS is an abbreviation for disk operating system. DOS : was developed by a company named Microsoft. MS-DOS \ is an abbreviation for «Microsoft DOS». When IBM first - \ released the IBM PC in 1981, IBM licensed DOS from "* Microsoft for use on the PC and called it PC-DOS. From the users perspective, PC-DOS and MS-DOS are the same, each providing the same capabilities and commands.

The version of DOS release in 1981 was 1.0. Over the past decade, DOS has undergone several changes. Each time the DOS developers release a new version, they increase the version number.

Windows NT (new technology) is an operating system developed by Microsoft. NT is an enhanced version of the popular Microsoft Windows 3.0, 3.1 programs. NT requires a 386 or greater and 8 Mb of RAM. For the best NT performance, you have to use a 486 with about 16 Mb or higher. Unlike the Windows, which runs on top of DOS, Windows NT is an operating system itself. However, NT is DOS compatible. The advantage of using NT over Windows is that NT makes better use of the PC's memory management capabilities.

OS/2 is a PC operating system created by IBM. Like NT, OS/2 is DOS compatible and provides a graphical user interface that lets you run programs with a click of a mouse. Also like NT, OS/2 performs best when you are using a powerful system.

Many IBM-based PCs are shipped with OS/2 prein-stalled.

UNIX is a multi-user operating system that allows multiple users to access the system. Traditionally, UNIX was run on a larger mini computers to which users accessed the systems using terminals and not PC's. UNIX allowed each user to simultaneously run the programs they desired. Unlike NT and OS/2, UNIX is not DOS compatible. Most users would not purchase UNIX for their own use.

Windows 95 & 98 are the most popular user-oriented operating systems with a friendly interface and multitasking capabilities. The usage of Windows 95 and its enhanced version Windows 98 is so simple that even little kids learn how to use it very quickly. Windows 95 and 98 are DOS compatible, so all programs written for DOS may work under the new operating system. Windows 95 requires 486 with 16 megabytes of RAM or Pentium 75-90 with 40 megabytes of free hard disk space.

Working vocabulary (В ваш словарь):

complex — сложный

to consume — потреблять

consumer — потребитель

to realize — осознать

smart — умный, умно

decade — декада, десятилетие

version — версия

to enhance — расширять, увеличивать

top — верх, вершина

on top of DOS — « сверху», на основе ДОС

compatible — совместимый

with a click of a mouse — одним нажатием кнопки мыши

access — доступ

to allow — позволять

multiple users — многочисленные пользователи

simultaneously — одновременно

to desire — желать

to ship — поставлять, доставлять

General understanding (Общее понимание текста):

1) What problems faced programmers in the 1940's andl950's?

2) Why first programs were «complex» and «timeconsuming»?

3) What are the basic functions of operating system?

4) What does DOS abbreviation means?

5) What company developed the first version of DOS operating system? For what purpose? Was the new operational system successful?

6) What is the difference between the PC-DOS and MS-DOS?

7) What does the abbreviation NT stand for? Is it DOS-compatible? What are the basic requirements for NT?

8) Who is the developer of OS/2?

9) What makes UNIX so different from the other operational systems?

10 )What are the remarkable features of Windows 95?

Задание 16.8. Заполните пропуски:

1) Like NT,... is DOS compatible and provides a graphical user interface that lets you run programs with a click of a mouse.

2)... is the most commonly used PC operating system 3)... is a multi-user operating system that allows multiple users to access the system

4)... is an operating system developed by Microsoft, an enhanced version of the popular Microsoft Windows programs.

5)The usage of... is so simple that even little kids learn how to use it very quickly.

a) UNIX

b) DOS

c) c)NT

d)OS/2

e) Windows 95

Задание 16.9. Какие из приведенных ниже утверждений верны/неверны? Аргументируйте свой ответ, опираясь на текст.

1) When computers were first introduced in 40s and 50's programmers had to write programs to instruct CD-ROMs, laser printers and scanners.

2) The operational system control and manage the use of the hardware and the memory usage.

3) There are no commands available in operating systems, only word processors.

4) Microsoft developed MS-DOS to compete with IBM's PC-DOS.

5) NT requires computers with 486 CPU and 16 M random access memory.

6) OS/2 is DOS compatible because it was developedby Microsoft.

7) Traditionally, UNIX was run by many users simultaneously

8) Windows 95 and Windows 98 are DOS compatible and have very «friendly» and convenient interface.

Задание 16.10. Найдите эквиваленты в тексте:

1) Современная операционные системы контролируют использование системного оборудования, например, принтера и мыши.

2) С точки зрения пользователя, операционные системы PC-DOS и MS-DOS идентичны, с равными возможностями и набором системных команд.

3) OS/2 — DOS совместимая операционная система, позволяющая запускать программы при помощи
графического интерфейса пользователя.

4) Дополнительные программы для работы с устройствами системного оборудования были очень сложны и поглощали много времени.

5) Операционная система также позволяет запускать программы, такие как простейший текстовый редактор.

6) DOS — наиболее распространенная операционная система для персонального компьютера.

INTRODUCTION TO THE WWW AND THE INTERNET

Millions of people around the world use the Internet to search for and retrieve information on all sorts of topics in a wide variety of areas including the arts, business, government, humanities, news, politics and recreation. People communicate through electronic mail (e-mail), discussion groups, chat channels and other means of informational exchange They share information and make commercial and business transactions. All this activity is possible because tens of thousands of networks are connected to the Internet and exchange information in the same basic ways.

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a part of the Internet. But it's not a collection of networks. Rather, it is information that is connected or linked together like a web. You access this information through one interface or tool called a Web browser.\The number of resources and services that are part of the World Wide Web is growing extremely fast. In 1996 there were more than 20 million users of the WWW, and more than half the information that is transferred across the Internet is accessed through the WWW. By using a computer terminal (hardware) connected to a network that is a part of the Internet, and by using a program (software) to browse or retrieve information that is a part of the World Wide Web, the people connected to the Internet and World Wide Web through the local providers have access to a variety of information. Each browser provides a graphical interface. You move from place to place, from site to site on the Web by using a mouse to click on a portion of text, icon or region of a map. These items are called hyperlinks or links. vEach link you select represents a document, an image, a video clip or an audio file somewhere on the Internets. The user doesn't need to know where it is, the browser follows the link.

All sorts of things are available on the WWW. One can use Internet for recreational purposes. Many TV and radio stations broadcast live on the WWW. Essentially, if something can be put into digital format and stored in a computer, then it's available on the WWW. You can even visit museums, gardens, cities throughout the world, learn foreign languages and meet new friends. And of course you can play computer games through WWW, competing with partners from other countries and continents.

Just a little bit of exploring the World Wide Web will show you what a much of use and fun it is.

Working vocabulary (В ваш словарь):

retrieve — извлекать

variety — спектр

recreation — развлечение

network — сеть

share — делить

humanities — гуманитарные науки

business transaction — коммерческие операции

web — паутина

browser — броузер (прграмма поиска информации)

to provide — обеспечивать чем-либо

provider — провайдер (компания, предоставляющая доступ к WWW через местные телефонные сети) broadcast live — передавать в прямом эфире site — страница, сайт to link — соединять hyperlink — гиперссылка to compete — соревноваться access — доступ

General understanding (Общее понимание текста):

1) What is Internet used for?

2) Why so many activities such as e-mail and business transactions are possible through the Internet?

3) What is World Wide Web?

4) What is a Web browser?

5) What does user need to have an access to the WWW?

6) What are hyperlinks? ⁺*7) What resources are available on the WWW?

8) What are the basic recreational applications of WWW?

Задание 17.1. Какие из приведенных ниже утверждений верны / неверны? Аргументируйте свой ответ, опираясь на текст.

1) There are still not so many users of the Internet.

2) There is information on all sorts of topics on the internet, including education and weather forecast.

3) People can communicate through e-mail and chat programs only.

4) Internet is a tens of thousands of networks which exchange the information in the same basic way.

5) You can access information available on the World Wide Web through the Web browser.

6) You need a computer (hardware) and a special program (software) to be a WWW user.

7) You move from site to site by clicking on a portion of text only.

8) Every time the user wants to move somewhere on the web he/she needs to step by step enter links and addresses.

9) Films and pictures are not available on the Internet.

10) Radio and TV.-broadcasting is a future of Internet. It's not available yet.

Задание 17.2. Дайте определение, используя словарь:

1) Internet

2) World Wide Web

3) Web browser

4) Internet provider

5) Hyperlinks

Задание 17.3. Найдите эквиваленты в тексте:

Л) Объем ресурсов и услуг, которые являются частью WWW растет чрезвычайно быстро.

2) Каждая ссылка, выбранная вами представляет документ, графическое изображение, видеоклип или аудио-файл где-то в Интернет.

3) Интернет может быть также использован для целей развлечения.

4) Вы получаете доступ к ресурсам интернет через интерфейс или инструмент, который называется веб-броузер.

5) Вся эта деятельность возможна благодаря десяткам тысяч компьютерных сетей, подключенных к Интернету и обменивающихся информацией в одном режиме.

6) Пользователи общаются через электронную почту, дискуссионные группы, чэт-каналы (многоканальный разговор в реальном времени) и другие средства информационного обмена.

Задание 17.4. Заполните пропуски:

1) You access the information through one interface or tool called a ...

2) People connected to the WWW through the local ... have access to a variety of information.

3) The user doesn't need to know where the site is, the ... follows the...

4) In 1996 there were more than 20 million users of the... Each ... provides a graphical interface.

5) Local ... charge money for their services to access ... resources.

Words to match with:

1) Web browser, providers, link, WWW.

Приложение 1

Тексты для дополнительного чтения

(Oral Topics)

ST FRIENDS

Friendship plays a very important role in our life. People usually make friends when they go to the same school, work together or live nearby. It's difficult to explain how two quite different persons make friends. You can have a lot of acquaintances but only a few true friends. It depends on many things. Among them are age, social status, mutual interests and sometimes personal qualities. It is easier to make friends with persons who are much alike you, though sometimes these factors are of no importance.

Now I want to tell you about people whom I consider to be my friends. One of them is Nick. He is an old friend of mine. We went to the first form together because he lived next door to me. Now he is a tall young man with dark hair, blue eyes and oval face. He is rather strong and well-built because he is a sportsman. He played volleyball well in our school team.

He is going to enter the Mathematical faculty of the University this year. He was always strong in mathematics and he helped me very often with my home tasks. I think he will be able to pass his entrance examinations and become a student.

My another best friend is Marina. She is a very pretty girl. She has big blue eyes, fair hair and a nice smile. She is a schoolgirl now. She studies well and she wants to become a doctor. She will try to enter the Medical Institute next year and I hope her first attempt will be successful. I'm sure she will make a good doctor.

I often meet my friends. We talk about our school life and our schoolmates. I like to spend my free time with my friends.

Words

friendship — дружба

important — важный

same — тот же

nearby — поблизости

difficult — трудно

to explain — объяснять

quite — совсем, почти

a lot of — много

an acquaintance — знакомый

true — настоящий

to depend on — зависеть от

among — среди

age — возраст

social status — социальное положение

mutual — общий

person — лицо, человек

alike — похожий

though — хотя

factor — фактор

importance — важность

to consider — считать

tall — высокий

rather — довольно

to enter — поступать I attempt — попытка I successful — успешный

Questions

1. How important is friendship in our life?

2. When do people usually make friends?

3. What does true friendship depend on?

4. How did you get acquainted with your friends?

5. How does your friend look like?

6. Do you think that the appearance of your friend plays an important role in friendship?

7. How often do you meet with your friends?

8. Do you have any classmates whom you consider to be your friends?

SPORTS

Sport is very popular among people in all the countries of the world. Sport makes people healthy, keeps them fit, more organised and better disciplined. It unites people of different classes and nationalities. Many people do sports on their personal initiative. They go in for skiing, skating, table tennis, swimming, volleyball, football, basketball, body-building etc.

All necessary facilities are provided for them: stadiums, sport swimming-pools, skating-rinks, football fields. But, of course, one have to pay for these services.

Sport is paid much attention to in our schools and colleges. Physical training is a compulsory subject. Different sports and games are popular with my classmates. All my friends go in for different kinds of sport, such as water sports (that is swimming, sailing, rowing), gymnastics, horse-racing, wrestling, fencing, weightlifting, boxing, football, basketball, volleyball, etc.

Physical training lessons at our college are held out-of-doors In summer. When it is cold outside the lessons are held indoors in our college gymnasium.

Professional sport is also paid much attention to in our country. In the city where I live, there are different sport societies, clubs and sport schools. Practically all kinds of sports are popular in our country, but gymnastics and tennis enjoy the greatest popularity.

The most popular kinds of sports in the United States are baseball, basketball and American football. In England popular kinds of sports are golf and rugby. Englishmen like football too. It is their national kind of sports.

Words

all over the world — во всем мире

to be fond of — зд. любить

healthy — здоровый

to be fit — быть в форме

personal initiative '■— личная инициатива

skiing — лыжный спорт

skating — коньки

body-building — культуризм

facilities — помещения, оборудование

swimming-pool — плавательный бассейн

skating-rink — каток

attention — внимание

compulsory — обязательный

sailing — парусный спорт

rowing — гребля

wrestling — борьба

fencing — фехтование

weightlifting — штанга

out-of-doors — на воздухе

indoors — в помещении

sport societies — спортивные общества

Questions

1. Why do people all over the world are fond of sports and games?

2. What are summer sports and what are winter sports?

3. What kind of sports are popular with your friends?

4. Do you have to pay for sports facilities, such as stadiums, swimming pools and tennis courts?

5. What can you say about physical training lessons at your college?

6. What kinds of sport are most popular in our country?

7. What are the sports organisations in our country?

8. What are the most popular kinds of sport in America and England? What other American or English kinds sports do you know?

10. Are American football and baseball popular inRussia? Why and why not?

TRAVELLING

Almost all people are fond of travelling. It is very interesting to see new places, another towns and countries. People may travel either for pleasure or on business. There are various means of travelling. As for me there is nothing like travelling by air; it is more comfortable, more convenient and, of course, far quicker than any other means of travelling. There is no dust and dirt of a railway or car journey or troubles with changing from one train to another train.

With a train you have speed, comfort and pleasure combined. From the comfortable seat of a railway carriage you have a splendid view of the whole country-side. If you are hungry, you can have a meal in the dining-car; and if a journey is a long one you can have a comfortable bed in a sleeper.

Travelling by ship is not very popular now. That is because it has become very expensive and not many people can afford it. Bu it is very pleasant to feel the deck of the ship under your feet, to see the rise and fall of the waves, to feel the fresh sea wind blowing in the face.

Many people like to travel by car. It is interesting too, because you can see many places in a short time, you can stop when and where you like, you do not have to buy tickets or carry your heavy suitcases.

Words

to be fond of — любить что-либо

means of travelling — способы путешествия

far quicker — гораздо быстрее

dust — пыль

dirt — грязь

trouble — беда, неприятность

combined — соединенный с чем-либо

splendid — великолепный

country-side — сельская местность

sleeper — спальный вагон

to afford — позволять себе

deck of the ship — палуба корабля

fresh sea wind — свежий морской ветер

Questions

1) Why do you think almost all people are fond of travelling?

2) What are the methods of travelling?

3) What is you favourite method of travelling?

4) What are the advantages and disadvantages of travelling by air?

5) What are the advantages and disadvantages of travelling by car, train and ship journey?

6) Why do many people prefer to travel by car?

MOSCOW

Moscow, the capital of Russia, is one of the largest cities in the world. It was founded in 1147 by the prince Yuri Dolgoruky. It stands on the banks of the Moskva river. About eight million people live in the city.

Moscow is famous for its historical and architectural monuments that were built by outstanding architects. The Red Square is the central and the most beautiful square in Moscow. It is the place of parades, meetings and demonstrations. There is a Cathedral of St. Basil built in 1552. It is a masterpiece of Russian architecture. The heart of Moscow is the Kremlin. There is a wonderful architectural ensemble with 3 cathedrals, the Bell tower of Ivan the Great, palaces, fortress walls and 20 towers. The most famous of the towers is the Spasskaya Tower with a big clock. The Kremlin with golden domes and towers makes a strong impression on tourists.

Several skyscrapers decorate Moscow, including Moscow University and the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

Moscow is a scientific and cultural centre with a lot of institutes, universities, libraries, museums. The city leads a vast cultural life. It has a lot of cinemas, clubs, concert halls, more than 40 drama and musical theatres, including the Bolshoi Theatre, the Art Theatre, the Maly Theatre, the Vakhtangov Theatre.

Moscovites are proud of their museums: the Tretyak-ov Gallery, Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts and many literary museums. Crowds of people visit Tretyakov Gallery admiring beautiful pictures of Russian painters. There are a lot of stadiums, swimming pools, courts and sport grounds in Moscow.

There are a lot of big plants and factories in Moscow that produce cars, lorries, home electrical appliances and so on.

Words

capital — столица prince — князь bank — берег monument — памятник outstanding — выдающийся architect — архитектор cathedral — собор masterpiece — шедевр ensemble — ансамбль palace — дворец fortress — крепость Bell tower — колокольня dome — купол skyscraper — небоскреб

Ministry of Foreign Affairs — министерство иностранных дел

scientific — научный vast — обширный

Questions

1. When was Moscow founded?

2. Who founded Moscow?

3. What is Moscow famous for besides that it is the capital of Russian Federation?

4. What are the places of interest in Moscow?

5. What are the world-famous theatres of Moscow?

6. What are the most famous museums of Moscow?

THE KREMLIN

The Kremlin is the heart of Moscow. It is the oldest historical and architectural centre of Moscow.

First it was a wooden fortress. Under Dmitry Donskoy the Kremlin was built of white stone. During the reign of Ivan III the walls of white stone were replaced by new red bri ck walls and towers. The Tsar invited Italian architects to construct the cathedrals. The Assumption Cathedral was built in 1475-^1479 and all Russian Tsars and Emperors were crowned there. The Archangel Cathedral was the burial place of the Russian Princes and Tsars. The An-nuiciation Cathedral was built in 1484. It is famous for the icons painted by Andrey Rublev and his apprentices. Ivan the Great is the Bell Tower, one of the most remarkable structures of the 16-th century. It rises in the certre of the Kremlin. It unites all the Kremlin Cathedrals into a majestic ensemble.

On the stone pedestal at the foot of the Bell Tower there is a Tsar-Bell — the largest bell in the world. Not far from it one can see a Tsar-Cannon.

Another fine example of Russian architecture is the Faceted Palace. It was built in 1487-91. -- One of the well-known Kremlin museums is the Armoury Chamber. It was built in 1851. The famous golden cap of Monomach, the first Russian imperial crown of Catherine II, made of gilt silver and many other precious historical items are exhibited there.

Words

Assumption Cathedral — Успенский собор Annunciation Cathedral — Благовещенский собор Faceted Palace — Грановитая палата Armoury Chamber — Оружейная палата Bell Tower — колокольня

Questions

1. When were the red walls constructed?

2. Where were the Russian Tsars and Emperors crowned?

3. Which Cathedral is connected with Andrey Rublev?

4. What is Annunciation Cathedral famous for?

5. What is exhibited in the Armoury Chamber?

RUSSIA

I live in Russia. Russia is my native country. The Russian Federation is the largest country in the world. It occupies one seventh of the Earth's surface. It is situated both in Europe and Asia. The total area is about 17 million square kilometres. The country is washed by 12 seas and 3 oceans: the Pacific, the Arctic and the Atlantic oceans. Our neighbours in the south are China, Mongolia, Korea, Kazakhstan, Georgia and Azerbaijan. In the west we have borders with Norway, Finland, Belarus and the Ukraine. There is no country in the world like Russia, with the steppes in the south, plains and forests in the midland, tundra and taiga in the north, highlands and deserts in the east. There is a great number of rivers in Russia. The Volga, the longest in Europe river, flows into the Caspian Sea. The main Siberian rivers — the Ob', the Yenisey and the Lena flow from the south to the north. The Amur in the Far East flows into the Pacific ocean. The deepest lake in the world is Baikal. The water in the lake is so clear, that you can see the stones on the bottom. Because of the vast territory there are various types of climate in the country. The climate varies greatly in different regions.

Russia is very rich in oil, coal, iron ore, natural gas, copper, nickel and other mineral resources.

Russia is a parliamentary republic with the strong power of the President who is the head of the state. The State Duma and the Council of Federation are the legislative branch of the government.

The capital of Russia is Moscow. It is the largest political, cultural and industrial centre. It is one of the oldest Russian cities.

The national banner of Russia is a tricolour with white, blue and red stripes.

Words

native country — страна рождения, Родина

to occupy — занимать

surface — поверхность

highlands — возвышенности

to flow — течь

vast — обширный

copper — медь

legislative branch — законодательная ветвь (власти)

national banner — государственный флаг

stripes — полосы

Questions

1) What is the size of Russia?

2) What oceans is Russia washed by?

3) What are the neighbouring countries of Russia?

4) What are the main rivers of Russia?

5) What are the natural resources of Russia?

6) What does the national banner of Russia look like?

SPORTS IN GREAT BRITAIN

The British are known to be great sports-lovers, so when they are neither playing, nor watching games, they like to talk about them. Many of the games we play now have come from Britain.

One of the most British games is cricket. It is often played in schools, colleges, universities and by club teams all over the country. Summer isn't summer without cricket. To many Englishmen cricket is both a game and a standard of behaviour. When they consider anything unfair, they sometimes say «That isn't cricket».

But as almost everywhere else in the world, the game which attracts the greatest attention is football, or soccer. Every Saturday from late August till the beginning of May, large crowds of people support their favourite teams in football grounds. True fans will travel from one end of the country to the other to see their team play. International football matches take place at Wembley.

Rugby is also very popular, but it is played mainly by amateurs. Next to football, the chief spectator sport in British life is horse-racing. A lot of people are interested in the races and risk money on the horse which they think will win. The Derby is perhaps the most famous single sporting event in the whole world.

Britain is also famous for motor-car racing, dog-racing, boat-racing, and even races for donkeys. The famous boat-race between the teams of Oxford and Cambridge attracts large crowds of people.

A great number of people play and watch tennis. Tennis tournaments at Wimbledon are known all over the world. The innumerable tennis courts of Britain are occupied by people between the ages of 16 and 60 who show every degree of skill — from practically helpless to the extremely able.

The British also like to play golf, baseball, hockey, grass-hockey. Various forms of athletics, such as running, swimming, boxing are also popular. You can sometimes hear that there are no winter sports in England. Of course the English weather is not always cold enough to ski, skate, or toboggan, but winter is a good season for hunting and fishing.

Words

Wembley — стадион Уэмбли в Лондоне

the Derby — Дерби

Wimbledon — Уимблдон

cricket,— крикет

unfair — нечестный, несправедливый

to attract attention — привлекать внимание

crowd — толпа

to support — поддерживать, болеть

football ground — футбольное поле

fan — болельщик

amateur — любительский

rugby football — регби

next to football — на следующем месте после футбола

chief — главный, основной

spectator sport — зрелищный вид спорта

racing — бега (конские, собачьи и пр.)

boat-race — гребные гонки

tournament — турнир

innumerable — бесчисленный

degree — степень, уровень skill — умение helpless — беспомощный extremely — чрезвычайно able — умелый

to toboggan — кататься на санях, санках Questions

1. What is cricket for an Englishman?

2. What is the most popular game in the world?

3. Where do the Cup finals take place?

4. Is rugby played by professionals? .

5. What kinds of racing are popular in Britain?

MY FAVOURITE WRITER Arthur Conan Doyle

I love reading English classical literature. But I am especially fond of English detective and adventure stories. I like Agatha Christie's books but my favourite author is Arthur Conan Doyle. I like him because his fiction is very realistic and helps to develop one's thinking and knowledge.

Arthur Conan Doyle was born in Scotland in the family of Irish. He was a doctor. In 1882 he moved from Scotland to England to set up a practice. His medical knowledge was a great help to him in his detective stories.

Conan Doyle was one of the first writers who started the fashion of detective story. Today the fashion goes on with the stories of other writers.

Conan Doyle created his famous character, Sherlock Holmes, in 1885. Six years later, when Conan Doyle wrote some stories about this detective, the name of Sherlock Holmes became the name that everybody knew. Sherlock Holmes first appeared in a book called «Study in Scarlet» (Этюд в багровых тонах). «The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes» made him famous all over the world.

Conan Doyle was a famous writer. He became popular because of his love for people.

Words

classical literature — классическая литература

specially — особенно

detective story — детективный рассказ

adventure story — приключенческий рассказ

to move — переезжать

Irish — ирландец

to set up — основать

fashion — мода

to go on — продолжаться

to create — создавать

character — персонвж

to appear — появляться

Questions

1. Where was Arthur Conan Doyle born?

2. What did he go to England for?

3. What helped him in writing detective stories?

4. What fashion did he start?

5. Who were Sherlock Holmes and Doctor Watson?

6. Why are detective stories so popular today?

Mark Twain

I like to read very much. Best of all I like to read detective stories, historical novels and books about adventures. That's why I prefer books by Fenimore Cooper, Jack London, Agatha Christie and others. My favourite writer is Mark Twain. He was the founder of the realistic American novel of the present day. Mark Twain wrote such famous novels as «The Adventures of Tom Sawyer», «The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn», «The Prince and the Pauper» and many others. He was also a great short story writer.

Mark Twain's real name was Samuel Clemens. He was born in 1835 in a small village on the Mississippi River. His father died when Sam was twelve years old, and the 'boy had to work to support the family. All his life Twain liked to read. He spent all his free time in libraries and read the works of such famous authors as Shakespeare, Dickens, Servantes, Voltaire and others. Later he became a pilot of a steamship on the Mississippi. There he learned much about men. His pen-name — Mark Twain — comes from that period of his life. It means «mark two». Much later he became a journalist, and then a famous writer known all over the world. There is much humour in most of Mark Twain's works. But there is also social criticism and satire.

Words

founder — основатель novel —роман pilot — лоцман steamship — пароход learned — узнал pen-name — псевдоним to mean — означать mark — отметка

Questions

1. What books by M. Twain have you read?

2. Did you like these books?

3. What was Mark Twain's real name?

4. Why did you like Mark Twain's the books?

5. What other English writers do you know?

EDUCATION IN RUSSIA

People in our country have the right for education. It is our Constitutional right. But it is not only a right, it is a duty, too. Every boy and every girl in Russia must go to school, that is, they must get a full secondary education. So, when they are 6 or 7 years old they begin to go to school. There are thousands of schools in Russia. There are schools of general education, where the pupils study Russian (or a native language), Literature, Mathematics, History, Biology, Music, Arts, Foreign Languages. There is also a number of specialised schools, where the pupils get deep knowledge of foreign languages, or Maths, or Physics.

After finishing 9 classes of secondary school young people can continue their education at different kinds of vocational or technical schools or colleges. They not only learn general subjects, but receive a speciality there. Having finished a secondary school, a technical school or a college young people can start working, or they may ,.'•] enter an Institute or a University. Professional training makes it easier to get higher education. As for high schools, there are a lot of them in our country. Some of them train teachers, others — doctors, engineers, architects, actors and so on. Many institutes have evening and extra-mural departments. That gives the students an opportunity to study at an institute without leaving their jobs.

Words

right — право

duty — обязанность

secondary — зд. среднее

deep — глубокий

vocational school — профтехучилище

general — общий

to receive — получать

training — обучение

higher — высшее

extra-mural — заочный

opportunity — возможность

Questions

1. Is education in our country free?

2. Is education in Russia right or duty?

3. What kind of schools are there in Russia?

4. What are the possible ways to continue educationafter the finishing of the secondary school?

5. What are the main types of educational institutionsin our country?

6. What are the types of higher education institutionsi Russia?

THE SYSTEM OF EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN

The system of education in any country is aimed at developing a personality for the good of the individual and society as a whole.

Pre-school education in England begins at the age of 3 or 4. Around half of the children at this age attend nursery schools or playgroups mostly organised by parents. Children of this age need care as well as education. That's why kids play a lot, learn to listen attentively and to behave.

Compulsory primary education begins at the age of five in England, Wales and Scotland and at four in Northern Ireland. Children start their school career in an in fant school. Lessons start at 9 a.m. and are over at 4 p.m. They are taught «3 R's»: Reading» wRiting, aRithme-tic. Pupils have a lot of fun at school, drawing, reading, dancing or singing.

When they are 7 pupils move to a junior school, which lasts four years till they are 11. They study a lot of subjects: English, Mathematics, Science, History, Geography along with Technology, Music, Art and Physical education

Most of children (over 90 per cent) go to state schools where education is free. Only a small proportion of them attend private (Public) or independent schools. Parents have to pay for the education at these schools. The fees are high and only some families can afford it. So such schools are for the representatives of the high class of England. The most notable Public schools are Eton, Harrow, Winchester, Rugby.

Secondary education begins at 11. The majority of secondary schools are Comprehensive schools where boys and girls study together. Besides, parents can take their sons and daughters to Grammar schools or Secondary Modem Schools.

Grammar schools provide an academic course from 11 to 18. They prepare pupils for colleges and universities.

Many children of working class families go to Modern schools- They give a very limited education. Pupils get instruction in woodwork, metalwork, sewing, shorthand, typing and cooking. After finishing such a school a pupil becomes an unskilled worker.

The Comprehensive Schools have their own «Grammar school» classes and «Modern classes»

Every pupil has to choose a set of subjects to learn. If he takes up Art he will study English Literature, Music, Art, Drama and foreign languages. If he is good at exact and natural sciences, he will learn Science: Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry. Biology. Geography, Economics and Technical Drawing.

The British government encourages careers education in the country. That's why secondary schools try to break down the barriers between education and business. They set up close links with firms to allow their students to take part in business activities.

At around 16 years old teenagers take some exams and coursework to get General Certificate of Education. Those who choose to stay on at school usually study for two further years to pass A level (Advanced level) ex-ms. These exams will give them a chance to enter the niversity.

Words

to be aimed to — преследовать цель

pre-school — дошкольное

to attend — посещать

nursery school —

compulsory — обязательный

primary education — начальное образование

infant school — подготовительная школа

junior school — начальная школа

science — естествознание

secondary education — среднее образование

limited — ограниченный

sewing — шитье

shorthand — стенография

unskilled — неквалифицированный

to encourage — поощрять

link — связь

Questions

1) What is a system of education aimed to?

2) When does the pre-school education in England begin in England, Wales and North Ireland?

3) When does the compulsory education begin in England?

4) What are «3R's» of the infant school?

5) What are the most famous Public schools in England?

6) What are Grammar and Comprehensive schools?

7) What are Modern schools?

8) Are there compulsory subjects in UK?

9) What exams must be taken to enter the University?

UNIVERSITY EDUCATION IN GREAT BRITAIN

There are more than 60 universities in Britain. But

not all universities are equal. They differ from one another in history, tradition, academic organisation. Not all British universities have a well-known reputation. Oxford and Cambridge, the oldest universities, are world^:known for their academic excellence. The University of London has the size and breadth to rank among the UK's top universities. A university usually consists of colleges. The departments of the colleges are organised into faculties.

University teaching in the UK differs greatly at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels from that in many other countries. An undergraduate programme consists of a series of lectures, seminars, tutorials and laboratory classes which in total account for about 15 hours per week.

Following a particular programme students take series of lecture courses which may last one academic term or the whole year. Associated with each lecture course are seminars, tutorials, laboratory classes which illustrate the topics presented in the lectures.

Lectures are given to large groups of students (from 20 to 200). Seminars and tutorials are much smaller than lecture classes and in some departments can be on a one-to-one basis (one member of staff and one student).

Students prepare work in advance for seminars and tutorials. And this can take the form of a topic for discussion by writing essays or by solving problems.

Lectures, seminars and tutorials are all one hour in length, laboratory classes last two or three hours. Each student has a tutor whom he can consult on any matter whether academic or personal.

The academic year is split into three terms. Formal teaching takes place in the first two terms which last for twenty four weeks in total. The third term is Reserved for classes and examinations and lasts for six weeks.

Universities teach in all major subject areas: arts, science, law, engineering, medicine, social sciences.

University staff are chosen for the best knowledge in their subject. The teaching encourages students to learn in the most effective way. University degree courses extend from three to four years. After three years of study at the University graduates will leave with the Degree of Bachelor of Arts or Science. They can continue to take their Master's Degree and then the Doctor's Degree. Words

equal — равный breadth — широта rank — ранг

undergraduate — студенческий уровень обучения postgraduate — аспирантский (магистерский) уровень обучения levels — уровни

tutorials — индивидуальные консультации с преподавателем

per week — в неделю

account — счет

following — следующие

series — зд. ряд

particular — определенный, конкретный

in advance — заранее

staff — зд. профессорско-преподавательский состав

length — длительность, протяженность

to last — длиться

tutor — репетитор, наставник

to be split into — делиться на

to encourage — поощрять, стимулировать

to graduate — оканчивать учебное заведение

Degree — степень

Bachelor of Arts — бакалавр искусств

Bachelor of Science — бакалавр наук

Master's Degree — степень магистра

Doctor'sDegree — степень доктора

Questions

1) How many universities are there in UK?

2) What are two the most famous universities in Britain?

3) What are two levels in university teaching?

4) What are the forms of study in British universities?

5) What areas do universities teach?

6) How many degrees do a British universities offer?

ISAAK NEWTON

The great English scientist Isaac Newton was born in the village of Woolthorpe, not far from the university town Cambridge on December 25. 1642. Little Isaac was left to the care of his mother, grandmother and uncle who sent him to school. In his early years young Isaac made various things. He made a clock that worked by water. He also made a sun-dial. When Isaac grew older, he took a considerable interest in mathematics. His ability as mathematician and physicist was very important. His first physical experiment was carried out when he was sixteen years old.

On June 5, 1661 Newton entered the University of Cambridge where he studied mathematics. Soon he became famous for his contribution to mathematics by the time he was twenty-one. When Newton was twenty-two years old he began studying the theory of gravitation. In 1665, while he was on a visit in his native village, he saw an apple fall from a tree and began wondering what force made the apple fall.

At Cambridge Newton read with great interest the writings of Galileo, he knew the geometry of Descartes, he worked out the methods of calculus. So when he began to think «of gravity extending to the orbit of the moon» he immediately put this idea to the test of calculation. Newton performed many experiments with light and found that white light was made up of rays of different colours. He invented a reflecting telescope, that was very small in diameter but magnified objects to forty diameters. Newton developed a mathematical method which is known as the Binomial Theorem and also differential and integral calculus.

In 1669 Newton was appointed professor and began lectures on mathematics and optics at Cambridge and continued his work on the problem of gravitation. In 1673 Newton, gathered together all his earlier calculations and succeeded in completing his whole theory. He examined the attraction of one mass by another. He showed that a massive sphere here attracts another as if the whole mass were in the centre. This was of great importance it ena-

bled Newton to treat the problems of the sun, the moon and earth like problems of geometry. He at last justified the method of treatment which he had first adopted for the problem of the Earth and Moon. The proof of his universe square law was not complete. He had demonstrated that the gravitation of the earth extends as far as the moon and keeps it in its orbit. He demonstrated that this pull is in accordance with the same law as that by which a stone falls to the ground, namely gravity. Newton's great work «Elements of Natural Philosophy» was published only in the middle of 1687.

Newton's law of universe squares joined in one simple mathematical statement the behaviour of the planets as well as 42 of bodies on this earth. It was the first synthesis of physical knowledge. As such his contribution to science is unique. Isaac Newton died In 1727 at the age of 85. He was buried with honours as a national hero. It was the first time that national honours of this kind had been accorded in England to a man of science.

Words

Isaac Newton — Исаак Ньютон Galileo — Галилео

Descartes — Декарт Рене, французский ученый, 1596-1650

calculus — исчисление

to put smth. to test — подвергнуть что-либо испытанию, проверить

reflect — отражать

Binomial Theorem — бином Ньютона

the differential and integral calculus — дифференциальное и интегральное исчисление

universe square law — закон равенства действия и противодействия

in accordance with — в соответствии с «Elements of Natural Philosophy» — «Математические начала натуральной философии»

the law of gravitation — закон тяготения Questions

1. Was Isaac Newton a bright child?

2. When did Newton begin to study theory of gravitation?

3. What did Newton find about white light?

4. How did Newton demonstrate his discovery?

5. What did Newton's law of universe square join?

6. Where was he buried?

RADITIONS OF ENGLISH SPEAKING COUNTRIES. HOLIDAYS IN THE USA

Every country has its own holidays. They reflect the history of the country and its cultural and religious traditions. Some religious holidays are common in different countries. They are Christmas and Easter.

Americans celebrate Christmas on the 25^th of December. They buy a lot of presents for each other, for their parents, children and friends.

The New Year's day, the 1^st of January is not so widely celebrated in the United States as we do it in Russia. Of course, the most important holiday in America is the 4^th of July, The Independence Day. People like to watch colourful fireworks in the evening. The 4^th of July lis the day-off and people don't go to work.

The holidays when people don't go to work are: Mar-rcin Luther King's day on the 20^th of January, Labour Day Jon the 7^th of September and Thanksgiving on the last Fri-Pday of November. On Thanksgiving Americans usually leat turkey. This holiday reminds the time when the first i colonists (pilgrims) from England came to America in 11620 and could survive in the unknown land. There is с still a big white stone on the shore in Plymouth in Mas-* sachusetts, that the pilgrims landed on. It is called «The Plymouth Rock».

The 31st of October is the children's most favourite ... holiday — Halloween. On this day children, dressed in

funny dresses visit their neighbours and say «Trick or treat!» and get sweets.

The rest of the holidays are usually on weekends. They are: the Flag's Day, Mother's Day, Armed Forces Day. Americans also celebrate Lincoln's birthday, Washington's birthday, President's Day in February.

The 14th of February is Valentine's day or as it is called «All lovers day».

Words

to reflect — отражать

Christmas — Рождество

Easter — Пасха

widely celebrated — широко празднуется

day-off — выходной

fireworks — фейерверк

turkey — индейка

to remind — напоминать

to survive — выживать

Questions

1) What do the holidays reflect?

2) When do Americans celebrate Christmas?

3) Is 1^st of January widely celebrated?

4) What is the most important holiday in USA?

5) What are the holidays when people stay off work?

6) What is and where is Plymouth Rock?

7) What's children most favourite holiday?

THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

The United States of America lies in the central part of the North American Continent between the two oceans: the Atlantic ocean in the East and the Pacific Ocean in the West.

Canada in the North and Mexico in the South are the only countries that have borders with the USA.

The USA consists of three separate parts.'They are the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific Ocean, Alaska and the main part. There are fifty States in the USA. They are very different in size, population and economic develop-ment.'The smallest state is Rhode Island and the biggest' is Texas. The total area of the USA is about 9 million square kilometres. The population is about 230 million people.

The USA is a big country and the climate conditions I are very different in different places.

There are many big cities in the United States: New York, Philadelphia, Houston, Chicago, Detroit, Los Angeles are the biggest of them.

The USA economically is the most powerful country in the world.

' The USA is a parliamentary republic The government has three branches: the Congress, the President and the Supreme Court.

There are two political parties in the United States: the Democratic Party, their Symbol is a donkey, and the Republican Party, their symbol is an elephant. The president is elected for a 4-year term and not more than two times.

The Congress has two houses; the Senate and the house of Representatives. The Supreme Court is the highest court in the country.

Words

borders — границы separate — отдельные

climate conditions — климатические условия parliamentary republic — парламентская республика

branches — ветви

donkey — осел

term — срок

House of representatives — палата представителей

Supreme court — Верховный суд

Questions

1. What is the size of United States?

2. What is the smallest state in United States?

3. What is the largest state in US?

4. What are the biggest cities of the Unites States?

5. What are the three branches of US government?

6. What is the political system of United States?

WASHrNGTON D.C.

Washington, the capital of the United States is situated on the Potomac River in the District of Columbia. The district is a piece of land which does not belong to any one state but to all the States. The district is named in honour of Christopher Columbus, the discoverer of America. It is very interesting that Americans never say simply «Washington». They always add «D.C». as the indication of the location. It is important because there are many towns with the same name all over the country and even one large^state in far north-west.

Washington was founded in 1791 as the capital of the United States of America. Washington is quite a new city. The population of the city is nearly one million people. It is not a very large city, but it is very important as the capital of the USA. There is a law in Washington against building structures higher than the Capitol.

Washington has many historical places. The largest and tallest is the Capitol, where the Congress meets. It is a very beautiful building with white marble columns. Not far from the Capitol is the Library of Congress. It holds five million books.

The White House, the residence of the president is the oldest public structure in the capital and one of the most beautiful. It was built in 1799. It is a two storied white building. Not far from the Capitol is the Washington monument, which looks like a very big pencil. It rises 160 metres and it is empty inside. A special lift brings visitors to the top in 70 seconds, from where they can enjoy the view of the city.

The Jefferson Memorial was built in memory of the third President of the USA Thomas Jefferson, who was also the author of the Declaration of Independence. The Memorial is surrounded by cherry trees.

The Lincoln Memorial is devoted to the memory of the sixteenth President of the USA, the author of the Emancipation Proclamation, which gave freedom to Negro slaves in America.

Words

District of Columbia — округ Колумбия piece of land — участок земли nearly — около, приблизительно marble — мраморные two storied — двухэтажный

Declaration of Independence — декларация независимости

Questions

l.When was Washington D.C. founded?

2.Where is Washington situated?

3.What state does the District of Columbia belong to?

4.What are the most important places of interest in Washington?

5.What is the nickname of the Washington memorial?

6.What is the design of the Lincoln memorial?

7.What is the population of Washington? .

8.Are there any specific laws about building of the structures in Washington D.C?

NEW YORK

New York, one of the largest cities in the world, was founded three hundred years ago in the mouth of the Hudson River.

The centre of New York is Manhattan Island. In 1626 it was bought from the Indians for a sum of twenty-four dollars. Today Manhattan is the centre of business and commercial life of the country. There are many skyscrapers, banks and offices of American businessmen in Manhattan. Broadway begins here, the Stock Exchange is located here. Very few people live in Manhattan, although the majority work here. Numerous bridges link Manhattan Island with the other parts of New York.

New York is inhabited by people of almost all nationalities. It is even called «Modern Babylon». At the turn of the 20-th century a lot of people came to the USA from different countries of the world. They entered the USA through New York — the Gateway of America.

. New York is one of the leading manufacturing cities in the world. The most important branches of industry are those, producing paper products, vehicles, glass, chemicals, machinery. The city traffic is very busy.

Words

mouth — устье

Stock Exchange — Нью-Йоркская фондовая биржа

majority — большинство

numerous — многочисленный to link — соединять to inhabit — населять Babylon — Вавилон

vehicles — средства передвижения (автомобили и т. п.)

gateway — ворота

skyscrapers — небоскребы

branches of industry — отрасли промышленности

city traffic — городской транспорт

Questions

1. When was New York founded?

2. What was the price of Manhattan Island in 1626?

3. What is Manhattan today?

4. Do many people live in Manhattan?

5. What is Broadway famous for?

6. Why is New York called «Modern Babylon»?

7. What are the most important branches of industry in New York?

THE PROTECTION OF NATURE

Since ancient times Nature was the source of people's life. For thousands of years people lived in harmony with environment and they thought that natural riches were unlimited. The development of civilisation increased man's harmful interference in nature.

Large cities with thousands of smoky industrial enterprises pollute the air we breathe and the water we drink. Every year world industry pollutes the atmosphere with about 1000 million tons of dust and other harmful substances. Many cities suffer from smog. Beautiful old forests disappear forever. Their disappearance upsets the oxygen balance. As a result some rare species of animals, birds, fish and plants disappear forever, a number of lakes and rivers dry up.

The pollution of air and destruction of the ozone layer are the results of man's attitude towards Nature.

The protection of the environment is a universal concern. We must be very active to create a serious system of ecological security.

Words

ancient — древний

source — источник

natural riches — природные богтства

harmful interference — вредное воздействие

to increase — увеличиваться

industrial enterprises — промышленные предприятия

to pollute — загрязнять

substances — вещества

suffer — мучаться

to upset — зд. нарушать

rare — редкий

to dry up — высыхать

ozone layer — озоновый слой

attitude — отношение

universal concern — всеобщая забота

Questions

1. What is the main reason of ecological problems?

2. What are the main ecological problems?

3. Why should the ecological problems should be a universal concern?

4. What steps are taken to fight ecological problems?

Приложение 2

Additional texts for reading

Дополнительные тексты для чтения

SHORT STORIES

At the shop

mother: I sent my little boy for two pounds of apples and you sent only a pound and a half.

shopkeeper: My scales are all right, madam. Have you weighed your little boy?

a shopkeeper — лавочник

a pound — фунт (англ, мера веса = 454 г)

scales — весы

to weigh [wei] — взвешивать

Johnny's grammar

Voice on phone: Are your father and mother at home? little johnny: They was, but they isn't now. voice: They was, but they isn't? — Where's your grammar!

Johnny: She is out too.

grammar ['graema] — грамматика grandma ['graenma:] — бабушка

First time at school

Emily had been to school for the first time. «Well, darling, what did you learn? » asked her mother. «Nothing», sighed Emily hopelessly. «I've got to go back again tomorrow».

failure — неудача to sigh — вздыхать Emily ['emili]—Эмилия hopelessly—безнадёжно darling — дорогой, -ая I've got to... — мне нужно

An unexpected answer

teacher: what do elephants have that no other animals have?

pupil: Little elephants.

unexpected — неожиданный an elephant — слон

Sleeping in summer

The teacher told the pupils about the bear sleeping in winter. After explaining it to the children, she said:

«Can anyone tell me of any other animal that sleeps in winter?»

A little boy's hand went up, and the teacher said: «Well, Peter, you may tell us of one».

«Santa Claus», said Tommy, «only he does it in the summertime».

He knew it

The teacher of geography was trying to teach a small boy the points of the compass.

He explained: «On your right is the East, your left is the West, and in front of you is the North. Now what is behind you?»

The boy thought a moment, and then cried: «I knew it. I told Mother you would see the patch on my pants».

geography — география

the points of the compass — части света по компасу

would see — увидите

a patch — заплата

pants [pasnts]—разг. штаны

An unusual answer

The grocer was busy serving customers but he noticed, x small boy standing near an open box of sweet biscuits. «Well, my boy», said the grocer, «What are you up to?» «Nothing».

«Nothing? Well, it looks as if you were trying to take a biscuit».

«You are wrong, mister. I'm trying not to».

to notice ['noutis]—замечать

biscuits — печенье

a grocer — бакалейщик

what are you up to? — что ты замышляешь?

to serve — обслуживать

a customer — покупатель

it looks as if you were trying... — похоже будто ты пытаешься...

How то raise children

· Daddy, do you think Mother knows how to raise children?

· What makes you ask that?

· Well, she makes me go to bed when I'm wide awake—and she makes me get up when I am awfully sleepy!

to raise [reiz] — здесь: воспитывать

I'm wide awake — мне нисколько не хочется спать

daddy — папочка

awfully sleepy — совсем сонный

The twins

Two brothers were twins. It was bathing time and from the twins' bedroom came sounds of laughter and loud crying. Their father went up to find out the cause. «What's the matter up here?» he asked. The laughing twin pointed to his crying brother. «Nothing», he giggled, «only Nurse has given him two baths and hasn't given me any at all».

lucky — счастливый, удачливый

cause — причина

twins — близнецы

to point (to) — указывать (на)

bathing time — время купания

to giggle — хихикать

a sound — звук

Nurse — няня

laughter — смех

to give a bath — выкупать

loud crying — громкий плач

at all — совсем

He khew another word

Bob: Have you noticed that in the English language there is only one word in which «su» at the beginning of the word are pronounced as [Ju]?

Bill: Really? What is the word?

Bob: Sugar,

Bill: Are you sure?

to pronounce [pranauns] — произносить really? — здесь: вот как?

I, myself and me

I gave a little party this afternoon at three;

It was very small,

Three guests in all —

Just I, myself, and me.

Myself ate up the sandwiches,

While I drank up the tea,

And it was I

Who ate the pie

And passed the cake te me.

myself — (я) сам

a sandwich — бутерброд

a party — званый обед

a pie — пирог

a guest — гость

to pass — передавать

The professor could not answer it

Old Mr. Hampton is a very clever man. He has a lot of degrees. Yet the other day he could not answer his granddaughter's question.

«Grandpa», she said, «I saw something so funny running across the kitchen floor without any legs. What do you think it was?»

Grandpa thought and thought, but at last he had to give it up. «What was it?» he asked. «Water», replied the little girl triumphantly.

a degree — учёная степень

to give up — сдаться, отказаться от чего-либо

the other day — на днях

across — через

triumphantly — торжествующе

He kept the promise

«Mother», asked Billy after his birthday party, «May I have a piece of cake, only a small piece, please?»

«No», replied his mother, «you've had quite enough».

«Well, may I sleep with a bit under my pillow?» asked the boy.

«Very well, here you are, and remember to keep it under your pillow. Now run along to bed».

When she came to Billy's room some time later, she saw Billy sleeping peacefully with the pillow over his stomach.

promise — обещание

here yon are — вот тебе

to keep (kept, kept) — держать

a bit — кусочек

a stomach — живот

a pillow — подушка

Cheering up

MOTHER (in a low voice): Jimmy, your grandfather is very sick. Can't you say something nice to cheer him up a bit?

JIMMY: Grandfather, wouldn't you like to have soldiers at your funeral?

to cheer up — подбадривать

wouldn't you like... — не хотел бы ты...

to be sick — болеть

a bit — немного funeral — похороны

Не was punished

· «Doctor», called the small boy, «come up to our» iouse quick».

· «Who is sick at your house?» asked the doctor.

· «Everybody but me. I had been naughty, so they didn't give me any of the nice mushrooms that Daddy had picked in the forest».reward — награда

naughty — шаловливый, капризный

virtue —добродетель

but — здесь: кроме

a mushroom — гриб

to pick — собирать

A substitute

Over the doctor's telephone came a call from a man who said that his small son had swallowed his pen. -

The doctor said: «I'll come at once. What are you doing in the meantime?»

«I'm using my pencil», the man answered.

a substitute — замена

a call — вызов

to swallow — глотать

in the meantime — тем временем

There is nothing to worry about.

MISTRESS: Did my son get in any trouble while I was out?

MAID: Nothing, except that he swallowed a bug, but I gave him some of that insect powder at once, so there's nothing to worry about, Madam.

to worry — беспокоиться a mistress — хозяйка a maid — горничная to get in(to) trouble — попасть в беду while — в то время как, пока

except [ik/sept] — если не считать (того)..., за исключением (того)... a bug — клоп insect powder — порошок против насекомых

What can Johnny do?

Mother sent Johnny and the baby into the garden to play, but it was not long before she heard cries.

«Johnny, what is the matter with the baby, now?» she asked from the kitchen.

«I don't know what to do with him, Mother», answered John. «He has dug a hole and he wants to bring it into the house».

a cry — крик

A bicycle

Parents gave their son a bicycle and were watching proudly as he rode around and around the block.

On his first round he shouted: «Look, Mom, no hands ».

The second time around: «Look, Mom, no feet».

At the third time: «Look, Mom, no teeth».a block — квартал

on his first round — проезжая первый круг around — вокруг Mom — мама

Leading questions

— «Billy», said the teacher, «what does c-a-t spell?»

— «Don't know, sir», said Billy.

— «What does your mother keep to catch mice?»

· «A trap, sir».

· «No, no. What animal is very fond of milk?»

· «Thebaby, sir».

· «You stupid! What was it that scratched your sister's face?»

· «My nails, sir».

· «I am out of patience. There, do you see that animal in the yard? Then tell me, what does c-a-t spell?»

· «Kitten, sir».

leading — здесь: наводящий stupid —глупый

what does c-a-t spell? — какое слово состоит из букв c-a-t?

to scratch — царапать nails — ногти patience — терпение a trap — мышеловка

Following the advice

The teacher stood with his back to the fireplace on a winter morning. He decided to give good advice to the pupils before starting the lesson.

«Before you speak, think. Count fifty before you say anything important — a hundred, if it is very important».

The lips of his pupils began moving in unison, and suddenly they cried loudly: «Ninety-nine, one hundred! Your coat tails are on fire, sir!»

to follow — следовать

advice — совет

a fireplace — камин

to count — считать

coat tails — фалды фрака, смокинга

in unison — в унисон

are on fire — загорелись

Pass it!

Boss: (sending the office boy on an errand). On the way you'll pass a baseball park. Boy: Yes, sir. Boss: Well, pass it!

a boss — хозяин

an office boy — рассыльный

on an errand — с поручением

a baseball — бейсбол

to pass — проходить мимо

Its favourite dish

For sale: a bulldog two years old. Will eat anything. Very fond of children.

for sale — продается anything — здесь: что угодно bulldog ['buldog] — бульдог

A fine room

Landlady: How do you like the room as a whole? Visitor: As a hole it's fine; as a room, not so good.

a landlady — хозяйка дома as a whole — в целом a hole — дыра

He did not want it

An old cowboy went to the city and stopped at a hotel for the first time in his life. The clerk asked him if he wanted a room with running water.

«No», the cowboy said. «What do you think I am, a trout?»

a cowboy ['kauboi] — ковбой

a hotel — гостиница

a clerk [kla:k] — служащий

running water — 1) водопровод; 2) проточная вода

a trout — форель

He did his duty

John became a policeman. On the very first day his lieutenant told him, «John, I am giving you an easy-beat to start with—just from the station house to that red light and back. John disappeared for two days.

«Where the devil were you?» shouted the lieutenant when John came back. «Didn't I tell you your beat was just from here to that red light?»

«You did, but that red light was on the back of a car».

duty — долг

a station house — участок (полицейский)

a lieutenant [lef tenant] — лейтенант

to disappear — исчезать

a beat — участок (обхода)

to start with — для начала

the devil ['devl] — здесь: чёрт возьми

Over the fields

The train came to a sudden stop. All the passengers jumped up.

«What has happened, conductor? » cried a nervous old woman.

«Nothing much, we ran over a cow».

«Was it on the track? »

«No», replied the conductor, «we chased it into a barn».

nervous — нервный a track — рельсовый путь,рельсы to run over — переехать, задавить to chase — гнаться, загонять a barn — коровник, хлев

He wanted a horse

CUSTOMER: Can I rent a horse? GROOM: How long do you want it? CUSTOMER: As long a one as you have, laddie. There are five of us.

a customer — клиент

a groom — конюх

how long — 1) на сколько времени; 2) какой длины

to rent — взять напрокат

a laddie —паренёк

A pleasant night

Mr. Brown, a travelling man, was a very light sleeper. One night he stopped at a small hotel, and after some time he got into a sound sleep. Suddenly he heard some loud knocks on his door and nervously sat up in bed.

«What is the matter?* he asked,

«Package downstairs for you, sir».

«Well, let it stay there: it can wait till morning, I think».

Theboy went down the corridor, and after a long time the guest fell into a sound sleep again. Then another knock came at the door.

«Well, what is up now?», asked Mr. Brown.

«It is not for you, that package», said the boy.

a light sleeper — человек, который чутко спит

to get (fall) into a sleep — заснуть

sound — здесь: крепкий

loud — громкий

a knock —стук

nervously — беспокойно

a package — пакет

downstairs — внизу

a guest [gest] — гость

What is up? — что случилось?

A wonderful talker

A sailor walked into an auction shop as the auctioneer was asking for bids on a parrot. «Fifteen dollars», said the sailor.

«Twenty», said another bidder.

«Twenty-five», said the sailor.

«Forty», said the other bidder.

«Forty-live», said the sailor. No further bids were heard, and the auctioneer said, «Sold».

The sailor took the bird and the cage, gave the money, and said: «I have paid a l&t of money for the parrot. Can he talk?»

«Can he talk?» said the auctioneer- «Why,, sailor, he was bidding against you ».

wonderful — удивительный

a sailor — моряк

an auction — аукцион,, торги

a bid — предлагаемая цена

a parrot — попугай

further — дальнейший

a cage — клетка

to bid (bid, bid) against — набавлять цену

He confirmed it

Big boaster: Yes, when I was in Africa I met a lion, t had no gun in my hand, so I took a pail of water and poured it over his head, and he ran away.

Listener: I can confirm that. I was in Africa at that time, and the lion ran into me, and when, I stroked him he was still quite wet.

to confirm — подтверждать

a boaster — хвастун

a lion — лев

a pail — ведро

to pour — выливать

to run into... — наткнуться

to stroke — гладить

LAZY JIM

Once upon a time there was a boy whose name was Jim and he lived with his mother in a little cottage.

They were very poor and the old woman had to work from early morning till late at night. She was a washerwoman.

Her son Jim was so lazy that he didn 't want to work at all. He only lay in the sun in hot weather and sat by the fire in the winter time. So they called him Lazy Jim. His mother couldn't make him work. At last she got angry and said to him one Monday:

«Look here, Jim. You are a big fellow. You are very strong and can work for your living», I am old and I don't feel well. You must begin to work, or I shall turn you out of the house. Everybody says it is a shame that I must work for you day and night».

Jim sighed and said nothing. What could he say? He had to begin to work for his living and help his mother. There was no other way out for him.

So next morning, it was Tuesday, he went to a farmer, worked all day and got a penny. But to have money was an unusual thing for Lazy Jim. He didn't know where to put it and lost his penny on his way home.

«You silly», said his mother, «how could you lose your money? Why didn't you put it in your pocket?» — «I'll do so another time», answered Jim. On Wednesday Jim went to the farmer again. This time the farmer gave him a jug of milk for his day's work. Jim put the jug of milk in his big pocket and, of course, there was no milk in the jug when he came home.

«Dear me!» said «the old woman. «What a silly boy you are! Why didn't you put it on your head?» — «I'll do so another time», said Jim.

Now, on Thursday he got from the farmer a large pat of butter for his day's work. He immediately put the piece of butter on his head and — well, you can imagine what happened!

When he came home and didn't bring anything again, his mother got very angry.

«What a misfortune it is to have such a silly son!» she said. «Why didn't you carry it carefully in your hands?» «I'll do so another time», answered Jim.

Jim was tired of his work for the farmer, so on Friday he went to a baker. The baker didn't give him anything for his work but a big cat. Jim took the cat very carefuh ly in his hands and started on his way home. But the cat didn't want to go with Jim at all. In a short time it scratched him so badly that he had to let it go. When he came home, his mother was terribly angry again.

«Oh, what shall I do with you, you silly boy! Why couldn't you tie the cat with a string and pull it after you?» she said. «I'll do so another time», said Jim.

On Saturday, Jim went to a butcher, who gave him a leg of mutton for his day's work. Jim tied the leg of mutton with a string and pulled it after him along the dirty road. You can imagine how it looked when he came home. Of course nobody could eat it. This time his mother was very sad.

«Oh, dear, oh, dear!» she cried. «I am the most unhappy woman in the world! My sun can't do anything properly. You big silly, why didn't you carry the leg of mutton on your shoulder?»

«I'll do so another time», answered Jim. On Monday, Jim worked for a miller and the miller gave him — a donkey! It was rather difficult for Jim to lift the donkey on to his shoulders. He tried very hard. At last the donkey was on his shoulders and Jim was greatly pleased. He started on his way home and walked very slowly because the donkey was heavy.

On his way he passed the house of a rich man, who had a beautiful daughter. This man was very unhappy. His only daughter could neither hear nor speak. And the young girl never laughed in her life. When her father asked the doctors* advice, all the doctors said:

«She will neither hear nor speak till somebody makes her laugh».

Now it happened that the poor girl was at her window when Jim went slowly by with the donkey on his shoulders. He looked so strange and so funny that the girl burst out laughing. From that moment she could hear and speak. She asked Jim to stop at her window for a moment because she wanted to thank him. Jim complained of his life.

«I am very unhappy», he said, «because I can't do anything properly».

The girl listened to him, and was very sorry for him. The young people liked each other at first sight. And the father of the beautiful girl was so delighted that he decided to marry his daughter to Jim. Jim's wife was not only beautiful, she was very kind too. She asked Jim's mother to live together with them, and the old woman did not have to work so hard any more. Jim's wife was not only beautiful and kind, she was very clever too. She gave Jim good advice and he learned to do everything properly. They lived happily for many, many long years, and nobody called Jim lazy any more.

PICKWICK PAPERS

(After Charles Dickens)

On a sunny morning of the thirteenth of May, one thousand eight hundred and twenty-seven Mr. Samuel Pickwick rose from his bed, opened the window and looked out at the world before him. Goswell Street was at his feet, Goswell Street was on his right, Goswell Street was on his left, Goswell Street lay in front of him. Mr. Pickwick was not happy to see only Goswell Street. He wanted to see life in other places surrounding the street. Soon after breakfast Mr. Pickwick with a bag in his hand, a telescope and a note-book in his pocket was ready to meet adventures. He took a cab and went to «Golden Cross», an inn where his friends were waiting for him. On the way there Mr. Pickwick began his studies of London life.

«How old is that horse, my friend?» asked he. «Forty-two», answered the cabman. «What,'» said Mr. Pickwick laying his hand upon the note-book. The cabman repeated the answer and Mr. Pickwick wrote it down in his note-Ibook. «And how long do you keep him out at a time?». «Two or three weeks», answered the cabman. «Weeks!» [said Mr. Pickwick in surprise and he took out his note-|book again. «We seldom take him out of the cab», said the cabman. «He is old, not very strong, and always falls down /hen we take him out of it. So we tie him to the cab, the cab runs after him and pushes him». Mr. Pickwick wrote lown every word told by the cabman in his note-book. He ranted to use the information at a club meeting.

THE PRINCE AND THE PAUPER

In the old city of London on a cold autumn day in the second quarter of the sixteenth century, a boy was born to a poor family of the name of Canty. The family did not want this boy.

On the same day another English child was born. He was born to a rich family of the name of Tudor, who wanted him very much. All England wanted him. People talked only about the new baby, Edward Tudor, Prince of Wales who lay in silk and did not know that all England wanted him so much.

But there was no talk about the other baby, Tom Canty, who lay in his dirty rags and did not know that nobody wanted him.

A few years passed. London was fifteen hundred years old and was a great town.

The street where Tom's family lived was not far from London Bridge and was called Offal Court. It was dirty, and the houses were of wood, with small windows. Can-ty's family lived in one room on the third floor of one of these houses. The mother and the father had a bed, but Tom, his grandmother, and his two sisters, Bet and Nan slept on the floor and covered themselves with rags.

Bet and Nan were fifteen years old. They were twins. They were always dirty and in rags, but they were kind-hearted girls. Their mother was like them. But the father and the grandmother were very bad people. They often got drunk and then they fought each other and beat the children.

Tom's father, John Canty, was a thief, and Tom's grandmother was a beggar, and they made the children beg.

Every day Tom went out to beg in the streets. If nobody gave him any money, his father and grandmother beat him at night and sent him to bed hungry.

But there were some good things in Tom's life. Among the people that lived in the house there was a kind old man who taught Tom a little Latin and how to read and write. He also told him many stories about kings and princes. Tom liked to listen to his stories. He also read the books that the old man gave him.

Tom was a clever boy, he knew so much! And he could do and say such interesting things! When the children played, Tom was always a prince and the boys were lords of his court.

At night when he lay in the dark on his dirty rags, he forgot his hunger and his father's beatings. He thought about kings and princes, who were clean and well dressed and lived in beautiful palaces. Tom wanted to be clean and well dressed too. But in the morning he had to go out in his rags to beg. At night he dreamed that he lived in a palace among lords and ladies. Oh, how he wanted to see a real prince with his own eyes! This wish became stronger and stronger day by day and at last he could think of nothing else.

TREASURE ISLAND

Squire Trelawney, Dr. Livesey and the rest of them have asked me to write down the whole story of Treasure Island from the beginning to the end. I take up my pen in the year 17... and go back to the time when my father kept the «Admiral Benbow» inn and the old seaman first came under our roof.

I remember him as if it were yesterday, a tall, strong, heavy man, with black, broken nails and a cut across one cheek. I remember him singing the old sea-song: «Fifteen men on the dead man's chest, Yo-ho-ho and a bottle of rum».

I remember how he asked for a glass of rum from my father when he first came and how he slowly drank it.

«This is a fine house», he said, «and not a bad grogshop. Is there much company here?» My father told him there was very little company. «Well then», he said, «this is a good place for me. I'll stay here a bit», he continued. «I'm a plain man. Rum and bacon and eggs is what I want. How can you call me? You can call me captain».

He was badly dressed, but he did not look like a common sailor; he seemed more like a mate or skipper. Then he took three or four gold pieces from a big sea chest which he had and threw them to my father. «You can tell me when you have finished with that», said he to my father.

THE DIFFICULTIES OF A FOREIGN LANGUAGE

There are numerous anecdotes about the difficulties of people travelling in foreign countries without a knowledge of the language of that country. Here's the story of a Frenchman travelling in the United States who, while eating in a restaurant, wished to order some mushrooms. Unable to make himself understood, he asked for a pencil and paper and carefully drew a picture of a mushroom. His drawing, however, was not too good, for the puzzled waiter returned in about ten minutes, not with an order of mushrooms, but with a large man's umbrella.

Another similar story concerns two Americans travelling in Spain. They were both unable to speak a word of Spanish and one day, while eating in a restaurant in a small village, they were having considerable difficulty in explaining to the waiter what they wanted. One of them wanted a glass of milk. The waiter seemed unable to understand. Finally, on the back of the menu the man drew a picture of a cow. The poor waiter, however, still seemed puzzled. Finally he left and was gone from the restaurant for half an hour or so. He returned very pleased with himself. There were two tickets for a bullfight in his hand. THE BLIND MAN AND THE GREAT ARTIST

Every day in one of the streets of Vienna you could see a blind man playing the violin. His dog sat near him with a cap in it's mouth. People, who were passing them, dropped coins into the cap.

One day, when the weather was very cold, the man was playing for a long time, but nobody wanted to give him anything. The poor man thought that he would have to go to bed without supper. He was so tired and so weak that he stopped playing.

At the moment a young man came up to him and asked him why he had stopped playing. The blind man said he had played for two hours but nobody had given him anything. «Give me your violin. I shall help you», said the man. And with these words he began to play. He played so well that people began to gather and soon there was a big crowd. Everybody was eager to listen to the fine music and to thank the young man for the pleasure.

Soon the cap was full of money.

«I don't know how to thank you», said the blind man».Who are you?»

«I am Paganini», was the answer.

A WISE JUDGE

Once there lived two brothers. They worked together on their father's farm. They were very honest and got along together very well. One day their father died leaving his property to his two sons. In his last will he told them to divide the property between them.

But the brothers could not agree now. Each wanted to have the better part for himself. After some time they even did not speak to each other. At last they went to the judge who was very wise and always knew how to settle such difficult matters.

The judge listened to them attentively and then he said: «The matter is very simple. We shall divide the property in this way. One of you will divide it in the way he thinks is best and the other one will then have the right to choose whichever of the two parts he prefers».

In this way the case was settled.

DUMB WIFE

Once there was a man whose wife was dumb, and this made him very sad because he loved her very much. After some time he went to see a doctor and said. «Can you make my wife speak?» «Perhaps I can», said the doctor, «the operation is difficult, but if I try, I'll do my best». «Of course, you may try», said the husband, «I'll bring her tomorrow».

The next day the doctor made the operation and the dumb wife began to speak. She spoke so much and so loudly that in a few hours her husband ran back to the doctor and said, «Can you make my wife dumb again?» «No», said the doctor, «there are many ways to make a dumb woman speak, but no ways to make a woman stop talking». «What must I do?» said the man, «I shall soon die if I have to listen to her all day long». «Well», said the doctor, «I can't make her dumb, but I can make you deaf and you will not have to listen to her». «Very well», said the man, «you may do so. It will be better than the other way».A SLAVE

Murillo was a great painter in Spain. He painted beautiful pictures and he had many students.

Once he came to his studio and found a very beautiful picture there. He asked his students who had painted that picture but nobody answered. Then he asKed his slave Sebastian if he had seen somebody in the studio the night before. The slave did not answer. When the night came and everybody went away Sebastian began to paint. He did not think of the time. Suddenly he heard a noise behind him. When he turned round he saw Murillo and his students watch him quietly.

«Sebastian», cried Murillo, «you are very good painter. How did you learn to paint?»

«I took my lessons from you, master», the slave answered.

«From me? I have never given you lessons», said Murillo.

«But you gave lessons to your students, and I heard them», answered the slave. Murillo was a very honest man. He understood that the slave was a very gifted painter, so he gave him freedom and began to work with his «slave» who was not a slave any longer.

THE KING AND THE CRITIC

There was a king who thought that he could paint very well. His pictures were bad, but the people to whom he showed them were afraid of the king. They all said that they liked his pictures very much.

One day the king showed his pictures to a great painter who lived in his country and asked:

«I want to know what you think of my pictures. Do you like them? Am I a good painter or not?»

The painter looked at the king's pictures and said:

«My king, I think that your pictures are bad, and that you will never be a good painter».

The king got very angry and sent the painter to prison. After two years the king wanted to see the painter again.

«I was angry with you», he said, «because you did not like my pictures. Now forget all about it. You are a free man again and I am your friend».

For many hours the king talked with the painter, and even asked him to dine. After dinner the king showed his pictures to the painter and asked: «Well, how do you like them now?»

The painter did not answer anything. He turned to the soldier who was standing near him and said: «Take me back to prison».

A BROKEN VASE

One young man was going to marry a beautiful girl. One day the girl said to him that the next day she would celebrate her birthday and invited him to her birthday party. The young man was eager to make her a present, so he went to a gift shop. There he saw many beautiful things. Of all the things he particulary liked the vases. But they were very expensive, and as he had very little money, he had to leave the shop without buying anything. Walking tothe door he suddenly heard a noise: one of the vases fell on the floor and broke to pieces. A brilliant idea came to his mind. He came up to the counter and asked the salesman to wrap up the broken vase he wanted to buy. The salesman got a little surprised but did what the young man had asked him to do.

The young man took the parcel and went straight to the girl's place. By the time he entered the room the guests had already gathered. Everybody was enjoying the party. Some of the people were dancing, others were talking, joking and laughing. Saying «Many happy returns of the day», the young man told the girl that he had bought a small present for her. With these words he began to unwrap the parcel. Suddenly he got pale and said. «I am afraid, I have broken it. There were so many people in the bus...» But when he unwrapped the parcel, he saw that the salesman had wrapped up each piece of the vase separately.

ENGLISH HOUSES

The climate of a country is one of the factors that influence the style of its architecture. It can be best illustrated by British residential buildings. The weather in England is often cloudy and there are few sunny days in the winter season, therefore, as a rule, the windows in an English house are of a large size to catch as much light and sunshine as possible. In the houses built in the past century the windows, besides being large, opened upwards, which is very convenient on windy days.

Since there is much rain in England, typical British houses have high, steep roofs where rain water and melting snow can easily flow down.

Most of the houses have a fireplace which forms the most characteristic feature of an English home and is seldom seen in other European countries.

The plan of an English house also differs from that of the houses where we live. English architects plan some apartments vertically instead of planning them horizontally, so that an English family having a separate apartment lives on two or sometimes three floors with rooms connected with a narrow staircase. They find it the most convenient style of apartment.There are usually three rooms in each apartment besides a kitchen and a bathroom: a living room, a bedroom and a dining room.

FROM THE HISTORY OF LONDON

In the year 55 before our era a Roman legion headed by Julius Cesar crossed the English Channel that divides the British Isles from the continent of Europe. Having landed in Britain the Romans founded a military station on the northern bank of the river Thames. Being skilled in the art of building they started fortifying¹ their settlements with thick massive walls and laying roads across the country leading to the sea coast. After staying in Britain for two centuries the Romans returned to the continent having left behind excellent roads and strong fortifications. One of Roman settlements was called Londinium Augusta. Four centuries later, according to some historians, the capital of Britain was founded in its locality, part of the Roman wall still lying deep under the ground beneath modern London.

No other ancient monuments of Roman times have remained in the city. The earliest historical monument of English architecture is the so called Tower of London which has retained its name up to the present day. Being erected on the ruins of a Roman fortress, it consists of parts belonging to different periods of English history, its central and most ancient part being the huge square tower four storeys high. It was called the White Tower, deriving its name from the white stone it was built of. The White Tower was surrounded with a double row of walls with smaller towers forming the inner and outer court with the scaffold in the back of it.

THE TOWER

Looking at the Tower you feel its close connection to the historical past of England with its constant and cruel fighting for power. Since the time of its erection the Tower of London has served many purposes: first a king's palace, then a fortress and a political prison. Now it is a museum.

Several kings of England found protection within its walls both against foreign enemies and their own people fighting for their liberties and privileges. The White Tower was the royal residence, all the kings of England spending the first days of their reign there according to an ancient custom. From the White Tower kings went to their coronation and out of it some of them came down to the scaffold lying in the outer court, forced to surrender their power to new pretenders.

All the towers in the walls surrounding the White Tower served as places of imprisonment, each of them keeping some dark and tragic secret. Narrow galleries, steep staircases, secret passages and dark cells formed in the thickens of the walls exist up to the present day. Among the numerous prisoners were kings of England, France and Scotland, princes and noblemen, protestants and catholics, scientists and public leaders. Shakespeare mentioned many of their tragic fate in his historical plays.

ENGLISH UNIVERSITIES

All English universities except Oxford and Cambridge are fairly new. London University is the biggest of the modern English universities and has many colleges and schools.

A university usually has both faculties and departments. The faculties are arts, law, medicine, science and theology. The departments include engineering, economics, commerce, agriculture, music and technology.

At the head of each faculty there is a professor. A staff of teachers called lecturers help him. Professors and lecturers give lectures to large numbers of students or study with small groups, and here the students have a chance to discuss.

All universities admit men and women, but within some universities there are colleges specially for one sex. Most of the universities provide hostels for their students. There are many types of colleges in England. There are colleges within universities. There are teachers' training colleges. There are also technical colleges of various types, colleges of arts and commerce. Colleges give a specialized training.

• Those who wish to become teachers spend three years at a teachers' training college. They study various subjects and learn how to teach, they have practice lessons at schools.

CHARLES DARWIN

A hundred years ago people believed that plants and animals had always been as they are now. They thought that all the different sorts of living things, including men and women, were put in this world by some mysterious power a few thousand years ago.

It was Charles Darwin, born at Shrewsbury on the 12th of February, 1809, who showed that this was just a legend. As a boy Darwin loved to walk in the country-side, collecting insects, flowers and minerals. He liked to watch his elder brother making chemical experiments. These hobbies interested him much more than Greek and Latin, which were his main subjects at school.

His father, a doctor, sent Charles to Edinburgh University to study medicine. But Charles did not like this. He spent a lot of time with a zoologist friend, witching birds and other animals, and collecting insects in the country-side.

Then his father sent him to Cambridge to be trained as a parson. But Darwin didn't want to be a doctor or a parson. He wanted to be a biologist.

In 1831 he set sail for South America to make maps of the coastline there. Darwin went in the ship to see the animals and plants of other lands. On his voyage round the world he looked carefully at thousands of living things in the sea and on land and came to very important conclusion. Later he wrote his famous work «The Origin of Species». On Snobbery

Snobbery is not so common in England today as it was at the beginning of the century. It still exists, however, and advertisers know how to use it in order to sell their goods.

A snob, the dictionaries tell us, is a person who pays too much respect to social position or wealth. The popular newspapers know that many of their readers are snobs. That is why they give them unimportant and useless information about persons of high social position, photographs of «Lady X and her friends» at a ball or «Lord Y and his friends» at the races.

It is a snobbery that makes some men feel annoyed when on the envelopes of letters addressed to them they find Mr. before their names instes of Esq. after their names. Snobbery explains why many people give their suburban house a name, such as The Oaks, The Pines, The Cedars, even though there are no oak trees, pine trees or cedar trees in their gardens. People of high social position have country houses with names, because a house with a name seems «better» than a house with a number. Numbers make the postman's work much easier, but that is not important.

The advertisers are very clever in their use of snobbery. Motor-car manufacturers, for example advertise the colours of their cars as «Embassy Black», though this is ordinary black,'or «Balmoral Stone». Balmoral Stone is the grey colour of ordinary stone, but Balmoral is also the name of the residence in Scotland of the British Royal family.

The Thanksgiving Day

One day the people of the village suddenly saw a tall Indian who was walking along the street. They were frightened very much, but this Indian came up to them, smiled and said, «Hallo, Yankee!»

Few days later this Indian came to the village again together with some other Indians. They came as friends and helped the white men very much. But white men forgot about this help very quickly, a few years later when many people from Europe came to America, they began to take the land away from the Indians and to kill them.

At last spring came. The people of New Plymouth began to plant corn, and the Indians showed them how to plant maize. In autumn the crops were very good and the people of New Plymouth wanted to make a holiday dinner. They asked the Indians to this dinner, and the Indians brought some wild turkeys as a present. The turkey was an American bird. Very few people in Europe had ever heard about it but when they ate it at this dinner they liked it very much. The people of New Plymouth called their holiday «Thanksgiving Day».

Since that time Thanksgiving Day has been a great holiday in the United States of America, and since that day Americans have always had turkeys for the Thanksgiving Day.

MAYFLOWER

It was in 1620, in the time of King James the First. English people did not like their king and they called him «The foolish King of England». Many of them even left England and went to live in other countries.

In November, 1620 a a small chip, the Mayflower, left England. There were about one hundred people aboard the ship. For seven long weeks the Mayflower was in the waves and storms of the Atlantic Ocean, and at last the people saw land. It was America.

It was already autumn. It was raining and a cold wind was blowing. Sixteen men left the Mayflower and went ashere. In the evening they came back to the ship and brought some maize with them. When the people on board the Mayflower tried it they liked it very much.

Next day was Sunday and everybody on the Mayflower had a rest. On Monday some men went ashore again and this time they took some women with them. The women had to wash the clothes. Simce that tiae Monday has been a wash-day in America.

During the next five weeks the mea from the Mayflower left the ship every day. Sometimes they did not come back for many days; they were looking for a good place to live. There was a good harbour for ships there, some field aad forests near it and even a small river. The people began to build a village there.

On January, 1621 there were already two streets in this village, and they called it «New Plymouth».

One day the people of the village suddenly saw a tall Indian who was walking along the street. They were frightened very much, but this Indian came up to them, smiled and said, «Hallo, Yankee!»

Few days later this Indian came to the village again together with some other Indians. They came as friends aad helped the white men very anch. But white men forgot about this help very quickly; a few yeas later when many people from Europe came to America, thay began to take the land away from the Indians and to kill them.

At last spring came. The people of New Plymouth began to plant corn, and the Indians showed them how to plant maize.

In autumn the crops were very good and the people of New Plymouth wanted to make a holiday dinner. They asked the Indians to this dinner and the Indians brought some wild turkeys as a present. The turkey was an American bird. Very few people in Europe had ever heard aboat it, but when they ate it at this dinner they liked it very much. The people of New Plymouth called their holiday «Thanksgiving Day».

NEWTON'S DINNER

Sir Isaac Newton was often so deeply interested in difficult problems that he became quite absent-minded. One day a gentleman came to see him, but was told that Sir Isaac was busy in his study and that nobody was allowed to disturb him.

As it was dinner-time, the visitor sat down in the dining-room to wait for the scientist. The servant came in and placed on the table a boiled chicken under a cover. An hour passed, but Newton did not appear. The gentleman, feeling hungry, ate chicken, and covering up the skeleton, asked the servant to prepare another one for his master.

Before the second chicken was ready, however, the scientist entered the room, apologizing for his delay. Then he added: «As I feel rather tired and hungry, I hope you will excuse me a little longer, while I take my dinner, and then I will be at your service». With these words he lifted the cover, and without emotion turned round to the gentleman and said: «See what a strange people we scientists are. I quite forgot that I had dined already».

At this moment the servant brought in the other chicken. The visitor explained how matters stood. After a hearty laugh, the hungry scientist sat down to dine.

A LESSON IN POLITENESS

Jonathan Swift, the famous English writer and the author of «Gulliver's Travels» was not very generous. He seldom gave anything to the servants or those who sent him presents. But once he received a lesson from a boy who very often carried him hares, partridges, and other game.

One day the boy arrived with a heavy basket containing fish, fruit, and game. He knocked at the door and Swift by chance opened it himself. «Here», said the boy gruffly, « my master has sent you a basket full of things ».

Swift, feeling displeased at the boy's rude manner, said to him: «Come here, my boy, and I will teach you how to deliver a message a little more politely; come, imagine yourself Jonathan Swift, and I will be the boy». Then taking off his hat very politely, and addressing himself to the boy, he said. «Sir, my master sends you a little present, and begs you will do him the honour to accept it».

«Oh, very well, my boy», replied the boy, «tell your master I am much obliged to him, and there is half a crown for yourself». Swift laughed heartily,- and gave the boy a crown for his wit.

ENGLISH CHARACTER

One of the most striking features of English life is the self-discipline and courtesy of people of all classes .There is little noisy behaviour, and practically no loud disputing in the street. People do not rush excitedly for seats in buses or trains, but take their seats in queues at bus stops in a quiet and orderly manner.

Englishmen are naturally polite and are never tired Kn saying «Thank you», «I'm sorry», «Beg your pardon». Ц you follow anyone who is entering a building or a room, will hold a door open for you. Many foreigners have commented on a remarkable politeness of the English people.

English people don't like displaying their emotions even in dangerous and tragic situations, and ordinary people seem to remain good-tempered and cheerful un-ler difficulties.

The Englishman does not like any boasting or show-iing off in manners, dress or speech. Sometimes he con-Iceals his knowledge: a linguist, for example, may not |mention his understanding of a foreigner's language.

The Englishman prefers his own house to an apart-'ment in a block of flats, because he doesn't wish his doing to be overlooked by his neighbours. «An Englishman's house is his castle».

Many Englishmen help their wives at home in many ways. They clean the windows on Saturday afternoon, they often wash up the dishes after supper in the evening.

Sunday is a very quiet day in London. All the shops are closed, and so are the theatres and most of the cinemas.

Londoners like to get out of town on Sundays. The sea is not far — only fifty or sixty miles away and people like to go down to the sea in summer or somewhere to the country for skiing in winter.

AMERICAN CHARACTER

American society seems to be much more informal than the British and, in some ways, is characterised by less social distinction. Students do not rise when a teacher enters the room. One does not always address a person by his title, such as «Major» or «General» or «Doctor». The respectful «Sir» is not always used in the northern and western parts of the country.

However, it is best to use a person's title when first meeting him/her, and then allow the person to tell you how he/she wishes to be called.

They use first names when calling each other, slap on the back, joke and are much freer in their speech, which is more slangy than the conventional British English. You will often hear the word «Hi» (a form of greeting among friends) used instead of the usual «Hello», and «Howdy» instead of «How do you do?».

Yet, in spite of all the informality, Americans, even in the way they address each other, show consciousness of social distinction. For example, one is likely to use somewhat more formal language when talking to superiors. While the informal «Hello» is an acceptable greeting from employee to employer, the employee is more api, to say «Hello, Mr. Ferguson», while the employer may reply «Hello, Jim».

Certain other forms of politeness are observed on social occasions. Women may wear hats in church, in restaurants, and often when attending luncheons in public places and other public social functions expect those that take place in the evening. Men who do wear hats ordinarily remove them in elevators, churches, restaurants, private homes, business offices — in fact, in most public situations when they wish to show respect.

WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE

The last half of the XVI and the beginning of the XVII enturies are known as the golden age of English literature. It was the time of the English Renaissance, and sometimes it is even called «the age of Shakespeare».

William Shakespeare, the greatest and most famous of English writers, and probably the greatest playwright who has ever lived, was born in Straford-on-Avon. We know very little about his life. The things that we know about Shakespeare's life begin with the date when he was baptised in the church of Stratford, on April 26, 1564, when he was only a few days old. So he is believed to have been born on April 23.

Though little is known about William's childhood, there is every reason to believe that he was educated at the local Grammar School. When little over eighteen he married Anne Halthaway of Shottery.

William lived in Stratford until he was about twenty-one, when he went to London. We do not know why he left Stratford-on-Avon.

There is a story that Shakespeare's first job in London was holding rich men's horses at the theatre door. But nobody can be sure that this story is true.

Later, Shakespeare became an actor and a member of one of the chief acting companies. Soon he began to write plays for this company and in a few years became a well-known author.

Shakespeare's experience as an actor (although he usually acted only small parts, like the Ghost in Hamlet) helped him greatly in the writing of his plays. His knowledge of the stage and his poetical genius made his plays the most wonderful ones ever written.

Shakespeare's wrote 37 plays. Among them there are deep tragedies, such as Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, Macbeth, light comedies, such as All's Well That Ends Well, Twelfth Night, historical dramas, such as Henry IV, Richard III.

Most of Shakespeare's plays were not published in his lifetime. So some of them may have been lost in the fire when the «Globe» burned down in 1613.

Shakespeare's spent the last years of his life at Stratford, where he died in 1616. He was buried in the church of Stratford. A monument was erected to the memory of the great playwright in the Poets Corner in Westminster Abbey.

CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS

In the fifteenth century people knew only three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. They knew nothing about such a big continent as America.

The man who was thought to be the discoverer of America was born in 1451 in Italy. His name was Christopher Columbus. He probably worked as a weaver before going to sea.

At that time the life of a sailor was full of adventure and danger, so Columbus had many exciting experiences. Once during a battle with a vessel off the coast of Portugal, he had to leave his boat and swim to the shore a long distance away. He afterwards lived in Portugal a number of years, and while there, he married the daughter of a sea captain. For some time he earned his living, partly by making sea voyages, and partly by drawing maps and selling them.

Knowing that the earth was round, he decided to reach India by sailing to the west. It was very difficult for him to organise his expedition as nobody wanted to help him. Many years after, the Spanish government gave him some money for his expedition.

In 1492 he sailed with three small ships into the Atlantic Ocean. They had been sailing for more than two months. At last they saw land.

When they landed they saw strange trees and flowers. Men and women with olive coloured skins gathered around them and looked at them with great surprise.

Columbus was certain that the lands he discovered were part of India, and he called these islands the West Indies. The people living there have been called Indians since then, though they have nothing in common with the real Indians — inhabitants of India.

His last voyage was made in 1502-1504. After that, seriously ill, he remained in Spain-until his death. He died believing that Cuba was part of Asia.

ACID RAINS

Every year more and more plants and animals disappear never to be seen again. Strangely, it is the most intelligent but most thoughtless animal that is causing most of the problems — man. Nature is very carefully balanced and if this balance is disturbed, animals can disappear alarmingly fast. Every day, thousands of species of animals draw closer to extinction.

In many lakes fish are dying. Fishermen are worried because every year there are fewer fish and some lakes have no fish at all. Scientists are beginning to get worried too. What is killing the fish?

The problem is acid rain. Acid rain is a kind of air pollution. It is caused by factories that burn coal or oil or gas. These factories send smoke high into the air. The wind often carries the smoke far from the factories. Some of the harmful substances in the smoke may come down with the rain hundreds of miles away.

The rain in many places isn't natural and clean any more. It's full of acid chemicals. When it falls in lakes, it changes them too. The lakes become more acidic. Acid water is like vinegar or lemon juice. It hurts when it gets in your eyes. It also kills the plants and animals that usually live in lake water. That is why the fish are dying in lakes.

But dead fish may be just the beginning of the problem. Scientists are finding other effects of acid rain. In

some large areas trees are dying. Not just one tree here and there, but whole forests. At first scientists couldn't understand why. There were no bugs or diseases in these trees. The weather was not dry. But now they think that the rain was the cause. Acid rain is making the earth more acidic in these areas. Some kinds of trees cannot live in the soil that is very acidic.

THE STARS AND STRIPES

The history of Old Glory goes back to early colonial days. The first banner used in the colonies was, of course, the standard English flag, consisting of a red cross on a white field. The flags of the separate colonies followed the same lines except that occasionally a pine tree, or a hemisphere, was figured in the upper left quarter of the cross.

The beginning of the Revolution brought a flood of suggestions as to the design for a new standard. But it was not until June 14,1777, that official action was taken, when the Continental Congress passed a resolution fixing the design as thirteen alternate red and white stripes, and thirteen white stars on a blue field. Each star and each stripe represented a state. As each new state was admitted to the Union, a star and a stripe were added, but it was soon realized that the addition of many more stripes would make the flag too bulky. Consequently, after having been increased to fifteen, the number of bars was reduced to the original number. But the number of stars steadily increased, until the present number of 50 equals the same number of states. The story goes that Betty Ross sewed the first flag, and it was at her suggestion that five-pointed, instead of six-pointed, stars were used.

While controversy continues as to why Congress selected this design, there is good reason to believe that the coat of arms of the Washington family, which contains both stars and stripes, furnished the inspiration.

It is interesting to note that, prior to the adoption of an official flag, a banner frequently used bore the figure of a rattlesnake, coiled to strike, with the motto, «Don»t tread on me.»

WHAT QUALITY MEANS

Even the dictionary finds it difficult to explain the meaning of the word quality. It has to use other words like excellence. Why is quality so hard to define? Is it because it is such an abstract word and can mean so many different things? Or because its meaning depends so much on what it describes? How can you define high quality when applied to the things you buy, for example, a pop record, a pair of shoes, a meal in a restaurant? You'll probably have three different definitions of quality for the three different things. Quality is also hard to define because it can be such a subjective word — it means quite different things to different people, even when they use the word to describe the same tiling. A Pink Floyd album may in your view have quality, but your friend may consider that the same album is a waste of good money. Yet another problem is that the meaning of quality changes over the years. Things which you think have quality may not be seen in the same way by older people. Just ask your grandmother what she thinks of the Stones? For example, consider the two ads. Both advertise clothes for men. Advertisers stress the points which they think sell quality to prospective buyers. The selling points that are stressed in 1897 ad are durability, craftsmanship, dependability, tradition. What about the ideas of quality in the present-day ad? Present-day ads do not talk about tradition or craftsmanship, dependability or durability.

They stress the virtues of newness, of being different, sometimes of being way out. Cheapness may be emphasized too, the fact that almost everyone can afford the product. Does this mean that quality in manufactured goods is disappearing now that most things are mass-produced?

DICTIONARIES

We all know the saying of a wise man who lived more than two thousand years ago: «Of making many books there is no end». If he had been living today, he might have said the same of dictionaries, for several new ones appear every year. They are needed for various purposes. Even in our own language we often find it necessary to look up a word, sometimes for the spelling, sometimes for the pronunciation, or it may be for the meaning or origin of the word.

In the twentieth century, with the remarkable increase in scientific and other knowledge, special dictionaries have to be made for special groups of words — commercial, technical, psychological, medical etc. There are some very large dictionaries which are supposed to contain all the words of the language, but they are not convenient to use. They are too heavy and take too much room. If you are studying one subject, it is much better to have a dictionary which is no bigger than an ordinary book.

Students of a foreign language need a dictionary which ontains all the words in common use in their own lan-uage and the one they are trying to learn, that is, the ords they are likely to hear in conversation, and on the adio, and those they will meet in the books and newspa-iers they read. Such dictionaries usually give the mean-ng of a word by translating it; and, sometimes, but not always, they give translations of phrases and structures. Dictionaries of this kind are useful to translators, but less useful to earnest students of language than dictionaries which give meanings and explanations and examples in the foreign language itself.

THE ENGLISH ALPHABET

Are you one of those unfortunate people who speak English very well but at once become worried when your teacher asks you to write? Don't be worried. Remember that a lot of English people have the same problem. Near my home there are at least two notices wrongly spelt and a lot of English people who are otherwise quite clever have to use dictionaries. What is wrong with this, for example: «Ould cars bought here»? The problem is this silly spelling, of course. As all those who read, know it just isn't logical.

Why isn 't English spelling logical ? The answer is that it isn't really spelling that is «wrong». Hundreds of years ago the English pronounced wolds as they spelt them. In many cases it is the pronunciation that has changed. Why not change the spelling to fit the new pronunciation? Of course we have thought of that too.

In 1843 Isaac Pitman, who invented shorthand, proposed a new alphabet of forty symbols. To make spelling fit pronunciation you need a different symbol for each sound. But you can use the same alphabet with just a few new symbols. Then leaving out silent letters like k in knife you just write the words as they sound. Kat for cat, etc. This is what Pitman wanted to do. Another idea is to use a completely different alphabet — phonetic alphabet.

This what George Bernard Shaw wanted. When he died he left money to pay for this, and in 1962 Androcles the Lion came out in a phonetic alphabet using forty-eight symbols.

But a hundred years after Isaac Pitman the English alphabet hasn 't changed. It would need a lot of money to change it. Think of all the books in schools and libraries and the printing machines. Then too there are those who really like our ridiculous spelling. There is in fact one new alphabet in use, the I. T. A or Initial Teaching Alphabet. The idea behind this is that children learn to read more quickly without the problems of English spelling. Reading early is important because by reading we can learn about other things. In many of our schools children learn to read with this new alphabet and learn the old alphabet later.

Some teachers don't like it. They say that the children will never learn to spell «properly».

Meanwhile the latest news is that the Simplified Spelling Society of Britain and the Simplified Spelling Association of USA have put their hands together. They think that English is becoming the most important language in the world and so we need logical spelling. They hope to publish a book explaining their ideas and proposing another new alphabet of forty-four symbols. The name of the book? «World English».

O. HENRY

O. Henry is the pen-name of the American writer William Sydney Porter (1862-1910).

In his youth he changed many professions: he was a cowboy, a reporter, a clerk in a bank; he travelled about America trying to find a job. He met many common people, and that helped him later in his literary work.

O. Henry is a great master of short story. Common people, whose life he knew very well, are the main characters of his stories.

Here is a humorous story about two tramps who wanted to get money by kidnapping the son of rich parents and , demanding a ransom for him.

The Ransom of Red Chief

It looked a good thing; but wait till I tell you. We were in the south, in Alabama — Bill and myself. We had about six hundred dollars, and we needed two thousand dollars more and did not know how to get them. It was then that we had that idea of kidnapping someone and demanding a ransom. There was a little town there, which was called Summit. We decided to kidnap the only child of a prominent rich man named Ebenezer Dorset. The child was a boy of ten, with bright red hair. Bill and I thought that if we kidnapped him, his father would agree to pay a ransom of two thousand dollars. But wait till I tell you. About two miles from the town of Summit there was a little mountain, covered with wood. On the slope of the mountain there was a cave. In that cave we stored provisions

In a village three miles away we hired a horse with a little cart. In the evening, after sunset, we drove in that cart past Dorset's house. The boy was in the street. He was throwing stones at a kitten which was sitting on the fence across the street.

«Hey, little boy», said Bill, «would you like a bag of candy and a nice ride?»

The boy threw a stone at Bill and hit him in the eye. That boy fought with us like a bear, but, at last, we put him in the bottom of the cart and drove away. We took him up to the cave.

After dark I drove to the village to return the horse and cart, and then walked back to the mountain.

When I returned, there was a fire burning behind a big rock at the entrance of the cave. Bill was sitting on the grass. The boy was watching a pot of boiling coffee. Two tail-feathers were stuck in his red hair. He pointed a stick at me when I came up and said:

«How cursed pale-face do you dare to enter the camp of Red Chief, the terror of the plains?»

«He is all right now», said Bill. «We're playing Indian. I'm Red Chief's captive, and I shall be scalped in the morning».

Yes, sir, that boy was enjoying himself. He liked living in the cave so much, that he had forgotten that he was a captive himself. He immediately named me Snake-eye the Spy, and announced that I should be burnt at sunrise.

Then we had supper; and he filled his mouth full of bacon and bread, and began to talk. He made a long speech, something like this: «I like this very much. I never camped out before. I was nine last birthday. I hate to go to school. Rats ate up sixteen of Jimmy's aunt's hen's eggs. Are there any real Indians in these woods? I want some more bacon. Does the wind blow because the trees move? We had five puppies. Why is your nose so red, Bill? My father has lots of money. Are the stars hot? I don't like girl's. Have you beds in this cave? A parrot can talk, but a monkey or a fish can't».

Every few minutes he remembered that he was a red skin and took his stick, which he called his rifle, and went to the mouth of the cave to see if there were any spies of the pale-faces. Now and then he let out a war-whoop, which made Bill shiver. He was simply terrorized by that boy.

«Red Chief», said I to the boy, « would you like to go home?» «No», said he. «I don't have any fun at home. I hate to go to school. I like to camp out. You won't take me back home, Snake-eye, will you?»

«Not now», said I. «We shall stay here in the cave for some time». «All right», said he. «That'll be fine. I never had such fun in my life».

We went to bed about eleven o'clock. We slept on the ground on some blankets. We put Red Chief between us. We were not afraid that he would run away. We could not fall asleep for three hours because every now and then he jumped up and shouted in our ears that the pale-faces were coming. At last I fell asleep and dreamed that I had been kidnapped and tied to a tree by a pirate with red hair.

Just at daybreak I woke up because Bill was screaming. I jumped up to see what the matter was. Red Chief was sitting on Bill's chest, holding him by the hair with one hand.

In the other hand he had the sharp knife which we used for cutting bacon. He was trying to take Bill's scalp.

I took the knife from the child and made him lie down again. But Bill could not sleep. I slept a little, but then I woke up. I remembered that Red Chief was going to burn me at sunrise. I was not afraid, but I sat up and lit my pipe.

«Why did you get up so early, Sam?» asked Bill. «Oh, I don't want to sleep», said I.

«That's a lie!» said Bill. «You are afraid. He was going to burn you at sunrise, and you are afraid he will do it. And he will, if he finds a match. Isn't it awful, Sam? Do you think anybody will pay money to get such a boy back home?»

«Of course», said I. «Now you and the Chief get up and cook breakfast, and I shall go to the top of the mountain and look around ».

I went up to the top of the little mountain and looked down at the town. I thought there would be many people in the streets, talking about how a boy was kidnapped and how to find, him. But the streets of the little town were quiet, there were almost no people, nobody was excited. «Perhaps», I said to myself, «they don't know yet that a child has been kidnapped».

III

When I came back to the cave, I saw that Bill was standing with his back to the wall, breathing hard. The boy was standing in front of him, ready to strike him with a big stone.

«He put a hot potato down my back», explained Bill, «and then mashed it with his foot; and I boxed his ears. «Have you a gun, Sam?» I took the stone away from the boy. «If you don't behave, « I said, «I'll take you straight home. Now, are you going to be good or not? »

«It was a joke», said he. «I didn't want to hurt him. I'll behave, Snake-eye, if you don't send me home and if you let me play the Black Scout today».

«I don't know the game», said I. «I'm going away, and you will play with Bill».

I thought that it was time to send a letter to old man Dorset, demanding the ransom and dictating how that ransom must be paid. Bill asked me, with tears in his eyes, to make the ransom fifteen hundred dollars instead of two thousand. I agreed, and we wrote this letter: Ebenezer Dorset, Esq.

We have your boy in a place far from Summit. It is useless for you to try to find him. You can have him back only if you pay a ransom. We demand fifteen hundred dollars for his return. If you agree, send the money tonight at half-past eight o'clock. After crossing the river on the road to P., there are three large trees near a fence. At the bottom of the middle tree your messenger will find a small box. The messenger must put the money into that box and, immediately return to Summit.

If you pay the money, your son will be returned to you safe within three hours. If you don't pay the ransom, you will never see your boy again.

Two Desperate men.

I put the letter into my pocket. As I was going to start, the boy came up to me and said:

«I say», Snake-eye, you said I could play the Black Scout today». «Play it, of course», said I. «Mr. Bill will play with you. What kind of game is it?»

stand it. I took him down the mountain, and showed him the way home, and kicked him. I'm sorry we lose the ransom ».

som».

«I'm the Black Scout», said Red Chief, «and I must ride to the fort to tell the people there that the Indians are coming. I'm tired of playing Indian myself. I want to be the Black Scout». — «All right», said I. «I think Mr. Bill will help you». «What must I do?» asked Bill, looking at the boy. «You are the horse», said the Black Scout. «Get down on your hands and knees. How can I ride to the fort without a horse?»

Bill got down on his hands and knees. In his eyes there was a look that a rabbit has when you catch it in a trap. «How far is it to the fort?» he asked.

as soon as you can».

«Ninety miles», said the Black Scout and jumped on Bill's back. «Please», said Bill to me, «come back, Sam, as soon as you can »-

I went to the village and sent the letter. When I came back to the cave, Bill and the boy were not there. I walked around but did not see them. So I lit my pipe and sat down to wait.

In about half an hour Bill came out of the bushes. Behind him was the boy. He was walking noiselessly, like a scout, there was a broad smile on his face. Bill stopped, took off his hat and wiped his face with a red handkerchief. The boy stopped about eight feet behind him. «Sam», said Bill, «I suppose you will be angry, but I couldn 't help it. The boy has gone, I have sent him home». «What's the matter, Bill?» I asked him.

«He rode me», said Bill», «the ninety miles to the fort. Then, when the people were saved, I was given oats. And then, for an hour, I had to try to explain to him why there is nothing in holes, how a road can run both ways, « and what makes the grass green. I tell you, Sam, I could not «Bill», said I, «you have no heart diseases?» «No», said Bill, «why?»

«Then you may turn around», said I, «and see what's behind you». Bill turned and saw the boy. Bill turned pale and sat down on the ground. Then I told him that I had already sent the letter, and that we should get the ransom and go away by midnight. So Bill cheered up a little and promised the boy that he would play the Russian in the Japanese war with him.

I had a plan to get that ransom without danger. I had to be sure that Mr. Dorset would not send policemen to those trees. So I went to that place beforehand, and at half-past eight I was already sitting in one of those trees. A young man on a bicycle appeared on the road, rode up to the trees, found the box, put a parcel into it and rode away.

I waited an hour and then climbed down. I took the parcel and hurried back to the cave. We opened the parcel and found a note, which said:

Two Desperate Men.

Gentlemen: I have received your letter in which you demand a ransom for the return of my son. I think you demand, too much, so I make you anotherpropostion, which, I think, you will accept. You bring Johnny home and pay me two hundred and fifty dollars, andl agree to take him back. I advise you to come at night, because the neighbours believe he is lost, and I don't know what they would do to you if they saw that you had brought him back.

Ebenezer Dorset.

«Sam», said Bill, «what's two hundred and fifty dollars, after all?. We have the money. One more night with this child will send me to the madhouse».

«To tell you the truth, Bill», said I, «he is getting on my nerves», too. We'll take him home, pay the ransom and go away». We took him home that night. We told him that his father had bought a rifle and a pair of moccasins for him, and that the next night we should go to hunt bears.

It was just twelve o'clock when we knocked at Eben-ezer's front door. We counted our two hundred and fifty dollars into Dorset's hand.

When the boy understood that we were leaving him at home, he started up a howl and caught hold of Bill's leg. With much difficulty his father tore him off. «How long can you hold him?» asked Bill. «I am not as strong as I was», said old Dorset, «but I think I can promise you ten minutes». «Enough», said Bill.

And though it was very dark, and though Bill was fat, and though I am a good runner, he was a good mile and a half out of Summit before I could catch up with him.

SPREADING THE WORD

Many people say that the British read millions of books, newspapers and magazines each day. Most of us read at least one newspaper a day and often pick up a copy of a book that is being read by hundreds of people, perhaps at the same time in the same language. I wonder how many people stop and think back to that day in the not-so-distant past when the first sheet of printed paper came off the first printing press used in England. That was in the year 1477 when William Caxton brought his printing press from Flanders, set it up at Westminster in the shadow of the old Abbey and set to work to produce the first books in English.

Canterbury Tales by Chaucer, who lived from 1340 to 1400, was among the books he printed, together with many translations from Latin and French.

Canterbury Tales was very popular among the people who could read at that time. These educated people who lived mainly in London could easily understand the language of Canterbury Tales because it was written in the dialect of London. But people from other parts of England couldn't understand very much because at that time each county had its own dialect. So the people of Kent, the West Country, the Midlands, London, the North and other parts of England could not easily understand each other.

Because Caxton printed his book in one dialect, the educated English had a common dialect, and as education spread, this dialect became the language of England.

Of course, if you read one of Caxton's original books you won't understand it very well because of the great changes in English grammar and spelling since Caxton lived. Caxton himself wrote in one of his books about the many changes in his lifetime.

«And certainly our language now vsed varyeth ferre from that whiche was vsed and spoken when I was bourne».

As you can see it varies very much in spelling and structure from the English you are reading, but you certainly recognize it as English of Caxton to whom we owe so much.

THE SKYLIGHT ROOM

(after О Henry)

First Mrs.Parker would show you the double parlours. She would describe the gentleman who had lived here for eight years. Then you would stammer that you were neither a doctor nor a dentist, and Mrs. Parker would give you a cold look.

Next you went up one flight of stairs' and looked at t the second floor room. Again you stammered that you wanted something cheaper.

At last Mrs. Parker would take you to look at Mr. Skid-der's large room on the third floor. Mr. Skidder's room was not vacant. He wrote plays and smoked cigarettes in it all day long. But every person who was looking for a room was made to visit his room to have a look at his curtains. After each visit Mr. Skidder, afraid of being turned out, would pay a small part of his rent.

Then — oh, then — if you still stood there, with only three dollars in your pocket, Mrs.- Parker would cry loudly the word «Clara!», show you her back and walk downstairs. Then Clara, the coloured maid, would take you up and show you the Skylight Room.

The room was very small. In it was an iron bed, a wash-stand and a chair. A shelf was the cupboard. Its four bare walls seemed to close jn upon you like the sides of a coffin. For a moment you felt you could not breathe. Then

you looked up as from a well — and breathed once more. Through the glass of the little skylight you could see the blue sky. «Two dollars, sir», Clara would say. One day Miss Leeson came to look for a room, She carried a typewriter which was made for a much larger lady. She was a very little girl, with eyes and hair that kept on growing after she had stopped.

Mrs. Parker showed her the double parlours. «In this closet you could keep a skeleton or anaesthetic or coal». « But I am neither a doctor nor a dentist», said Miss Leeson. Mrs. Parker gave her the cold look she kept for those who were neither doctors nor dentists, and moved to the second floor back room.

«Eight dollars?» said Miss Leeson. «Dear me! I'm just a poor little working girl. Show me something higher and lower».

Mr. Skidder jumped up and dropped his cigarettes when he heard the knock on the door.

«Excuse me, Mr. Skidder», said Mrs. Parker, with her demon's smile. «I didn't know you were in». «I asked the lady to have a look at your curtains». — «They are beautiful», said Miss Leeson with a sweet smile.

After they had gone, Mr. Skidder began to replace his tall, black-haired heroine from his latest play by a small, fair, long-haired girl with big eyes.

Soon the call «Clara» was heard. The coloured maid took Miss Leeson up the ladder to the Skylight Room and said: «Two dollars!»

«I'll take it», sighed Miss Leeson, sinking down upon the iron bed.

Every day Miss Leeson went out to work. At night she brought some papers with handwriting on them and made copies with her typewriter. Sometimes she had no workin the evening, and she would sit on the steps of the p_Orch with the other lodgers. Miss Leeson was a sweet, gay Creature. She was kind to everybody. Once she let Mr. Skidder read to her three acts of his great (unpublished) Comedy.

The gentlemen lodgers were always pleased when Vq_ssLeeson had time to sit on the steps for an hour or two. But Miss Longnecker, the tall blonde who taugbt at school and said, «Well, really!» to everything you s_aid, sat on the top step and sniffed. And Miss Dorn, who worked in a department store, sat on the bottom step _an(j sniffed. Miss Leeson sat on the middle step and the \n_Gxi would quickly group around her.

Especially Mr. Skidder. And especially Mr. Hooker, who was forty-five, fat, red-faced and foolish. And especially young Mr. Evans. The men said she was the jf_un. niest and jolliest girl they had ever seen, but the laflies on the top step and the lower-step kept on sniffing».

* * *

One summer evening Mrs. Parker's lodgers were gating on the porch when Miss Leeson looked up into the sky and cried gaily:

«Oh, there is Billy Jackson! I can see him from h&_re>too».

All looked up, thinking there was a plane guided by some pilot Jackson. But there was no plane in the sky.

«It's that star», explained Miss Leeson, pointing-w^h a thin finger. I can see it every night through my sty-light. I named it Bill Jackson».

«Well, really I» said Miss Longnecker. «I didn't kn_Ow you were an astronomer, Miss Leeson». «Yes, I am», Miss Leeson.

«Well, really!» said Miss Longnecker. «The star you are pointing to is Gamma, of the constellation Cassiopeia».

« Oh », said Mr. Evans, «I think Billy Jackson is a much better name for it».

«You can't see him very well from down here», said Miss Leeson. «You must see him from my room. You know you can see stars even in the day-time from the bottom of a well. At night my room is like a well, and it makes Billy Jackson look like the big diamond pin that Night fastens her gown with ».

* * *

There came a time after that when Miss Leeson brought no papers home to copy. And when she left home in the morning, instead of working, she went from office to office and got cold refusals from office boys. This went on for many days.

One evening she wearily climbed Mrs. Parker's porch at the hour when she always returned from her dinner at the restaurant. But she had had no dinner.

As she entered the hall, Mr. Hoover came up to her. He was pleased there was nobody in the hall. He asked her to marry him. She moved away from him, and caught the balustrade. He tried to take her by the hand and she raised it and struck him weakly on the face. Step by step she went up. She passed Mr. Skidder's door. At last she crawled up the ladder and opened the door of the skylight room. She was too weak to light the lamp or to undress. She fell upon the iron bed, slowly raised her heavy eyelids, and smiled. For Billy Jackson was shining down on her, calm and bright, through the skylight.

As she lay on her back she tried twice to raise her arm. The third time she touched her lips with two thin fingers and blew a kiss out of the black well. Then her arm fell back.

«Good-bye, Billy», she murmured faintly. «You are millions of miles away. But you kept where I could *pe you most of the time, when there wasn't anything else but darkness around me. Millions of miles... Good-bye, Billy Jackson».

Clara, the coloured maid, found the door locked at ten next morning, and they forced it open. The girl was unconscious and someone ran to phone for an ambulance». Soon it arrived, and a young doctor, in his white linen coat, quick and active, climbed the steps. «Ambulance call to 49», he said. «What's the trouble?». «Oh, yes, doctor», sniffed Mrs. Parker. She was not pleased that there was trouble in the house. «I can't understand what can be the matter with her. She is unconscious and we can't bring her to. It's a young woman, Miss Elsie Leeson. Never before in my house—»

«What room?» cried the doctor in a terrible voice. Mrs. Parker had never heard such a voice before. «The skylight room. It —"

Evidently the ambulance doctor knew the way to skylight rooms. He.ran up the stairs, four at a time». Mrs. Parker followed slowly; she was not used to hurrying. On the first landing she met the doctor who was coming back. He was carrying the astronomer in his arms. He stopped for a moment and said something to Mrs. Parker that was evidently not very pleasant to hear.

The ambulance doctor walked with his burden through the crowd of curious gapers that had gathered in the street. His face was pale and grave.

They noticed that he did not lay down the girl upon the bed in the ambulance, and that all he said to the driver was: «Drive like hell!»

That is all. In the next morning's newspaper I saw a little item, and the last sentence of it may help you (as it helped me) to understand the story better.

«A young woman has been brought to Bellevue Hospital from No. 49... Street. She is suffering from debility caused by starvation. The ambulance doctor William Jackson who attended the case, says the patient will recover» .

WALTER SCOTT

The famous English writer Walter Scott (1771 — 1832) is the founder of the historical novel in English literature. He was greatly interested in the past of his country and studied it by documents, history and legends.

Among the historical novels of Waiter Scott Ivanhoe is one of the best. It describes the even ts of the 12th century during the reign of Richard I the Zion-Hearted. The power in England at that time was in. the hands of the Normans, who oppressed the native Anglo-Saxon population. There were serious conflicts between the Anglo-Saxon nobility and the Normans. In his novel Walter Scott wanted to show how, as years passed, the Anglo-Saxons and the Normans became one nation.

Ivanhoe

Parti

In that pleasant district of merry England which lies on both sides of the river Don, in old times there was a large forest. Parts of this forest still exist. It was the home of the brave outlaws, who were so popular.

Our story describes the time towards the end of the reign of Richard I, when he was abroad. The barons, in the king's absence, strengthened their castles and acted like little kings. Prince John, the king's brother, with the help of the barons, tried to seize the tftrone. Common people were cruelly oppressed.

A hundred years had passed since the Conquest of England by-Duke William of Normandy. But in these hundred years the language and the interests of the Normans and Anglo-Saxons were not yet united. These two peoples remained enemies. Only a few of the Saxon princes were still masters of the land which had belonged to their fathers. After the Conquest, William the Conqueror had taken the greater part of the land from its Saxon owners and given it to the Norman barons. At court and in the castles of the great nobles Norman-French was the only language spoken. Anglo-Saxon was spoken only by common people and the few remaining Saxon nobles who had not yet bent under the Norman rule.

The sun was setting upon one of the glades of that forest which we have spoken about. There were two men in the glade. The elder of these men had a serious look. He was wearing a long shirt made of the skin of some animal, and reaching down to his knees. On his feet he had sandals. Round his neck there was a metal ring, like a dog's collar; on the ring there were such words: «Gurth», the born slave of Cedric of Rotherwood». Gurth was a swineherd.

The other man was sitting on the ground beside Gurth. He looked about ten years younger. His clothes, in form, were like those of his companion, but his shirt was of better materials and of brighter colours. Over his shirt he was wearing a short red cloak. Round his neck there^ was a collar of the same metal, with these words: « Wamba the born slave of Cedric of Rotherwood». On his head he had a cap with bells round it. This cap, and his bright clothes, showed that he was a domestic jester.

The swineherd looked serious and sad. Wamba's eyes were merry. The two men were talking in Anglo-Saxon, ui-iuivjuiuMi' С

which, as we said before, was spoken by all common people, except the Norman soldiers. Gurth, with the help of his dog, was trying to gather his swine together, but could not.

«Stand up, Wamba, if you are a man», he said, «and help me, or wolves on two legs will catch some of them before night».

«Really», said Wamba without standing up, «I have asked my legs, and they think that it is not good for me to run about and cover my wonderful clothes with dust. That's why, Gurth, Г advise you to leave the herd alone: because if they meet a group of travelling soldiers, or of outlaws, the only thing that can happen to them is that they will be turned into Normans before morning».

«The swine will be turned into Normans!» repeated Gurth. «Explain that to me, Wamba, I don't understand you».

«Why, what do you call these animals which are running about on-their four legs?» asked Wamba.

«Swine, fool, swine», said the herd, «every fool knows that». «And swine is a good Anglo-Saxon word», said the jester; «but what do you call the swine when it is killed and washed and cut into pieces and cooked?» «Pork», answered the swineherd.

«I am very glad every fool knows that too», said Wamba, «and pork, I think, is a Norman-French word. And so, when this animal lives, and a Saxon slave takes care of it, it goes by its Anglo-Saxon name; but when it is carried to the dinner-table in the castle, it becomes a Norman and is called pork, what do you think of this, friend Gurth, ha?» «It is true, friend Wamba. How did it get into your fool's head?» «I can tell you more», said Wamba in the same tone; «the old Ox goes by its Anglo-Saxon name while serfs like you take care of it; but becomes a Norman and is called Beef when it arrives at table».

«You speak sad truths», answered Gurth. «Little is left to us, except the air which we breathe. All that is best goes to the Normans» our bravest men become their soldiers and go to die in distant lands; very few remain here who have either the will or the power to protect the poor Saxons. God bless our Master Cedric; he always stands by us. Here, here! Well done!» he exclaimed, as his dog appeared driving the swine before it. «You have gathered all of them now! Now, quick, Wamba, because a terrible storm of thunder and lightning is coming. Let's hurry home before the storm begins, because the night will be terrible».

And they walked quickly down the forest path, driving the swine before them.

Gurth and Wamba were soon overtaken by a group of ten horsemen, two of which seemed to be important persons, and the others their servants,

One of the important persons was a monk of high rank dressed in rich clothes. His companion was a man over forty, thin, strong and tall, with a very sunburnt face. He had a long red cloak over his shoulders, with a white cross on it. Under it he was wearing a chain.

In the first of the two horsemen Gurth and Wamba recognized Prior Ayrner, of the nearest Abbey, a rich Norman, well-known in the neighborhood. But they did not know his companion and were surprised that he looked half a monk, half a soldier.

«My children», said the Prior to Gurth and Wamba, «we are looking for a place where we and our servants

could spend the night. Can you show us the way to the house of Cedric the Saxon?»

«It will be difficult to find the road», said Gurth, «and the family of Cedric go to bed early».

«You must tell us the way», said the Prior. «This reverend brother is of the order of Knights Templars; he is half a monk, half a soldier. He has been afl his life fighting with the Saracens. It will soon be night, and we are tired and hungry».

«Well, then», said Wamba, «you must ride along this path till you come to a cross; four paths, meet at that cross; you take the path to the left, and I think you will reach the house of Cedric of Rotherwood before the storm begins».

The Prior thanked him, and the group rode quickly on. When they disappeared, Gurth said to Wamba, «If they go as you have told them, I think they will not reach Rotherwood this night». «I think not», said Wamba smiling, «and it will be good». «You are right», said Gurth. «It will be bad enough if Prior Ayrner sees the Lady Ro-wena, and it will be worse if Cedric quarrels with this military monk».

As the horsemen were moving on, they talked in Norman-French, the language used by the upper classes.

«What do you call the man to whose house we are riding?» said the Templar to his companion.

«Cedric of Rotherwood», answered the Prior, «and remember: he is very proud. He stands up for his Saxons' so sternly, that he is called by everybody Cedric the Saxon».

«This Lady Rowena, his daughter, is very beautiful, I think?» said the Templar.

«Cedric is not her father», replied the Prior, «she is his distant relation; he is her guardian, and loves her as his own child. She is really very beautiful, you will see it yourself. But be careful, brother Brian», how you look at Rowena and how you talk to her: if Cedric the Saxon does not like it, we are lost men. People say that he turned his own son out of the house because the young¹ man fell in love with her. But here is the cross, and the night is so dark, that it is very difficult to see the paths. Which way did he tell us to turn? To the left?» «To the right», said Brian. «To the left, I think», said the Prior.

They were in a difficulty, but here they noticed a young man sleeping at the foot of the cross. They woke him up and asked if he could tell them the way to Rother-wood.

«I am going there myself», said the stranger. «I know the way very well, and if you give me a horse, I can be your guide».

Приложение 3

A horse was given to the stranger, and he led the group along a path through the forest. The way was difficult, they had to cross some streams and turn in many places, but at last they came to a wide road, at the end of which they saw a large low building. The young man pointed to it and said, «ThisisRotherwood, the house of Cedric the Saxon».

НАИБОЛЕЕ УПОТРЕБИТЕЛЬНЫЕ НАРЕЧИЯ

Наречия места и направления:

here — здесь, тут

there — там

somewhere — где-то, где-нибудь

anywhere — везде, повсюду, где-нибудь

nowhere — нигде

inside — внутри

outside — снаружи .

down — внизу

back — сзади, назад

away — вдали, вон, прочь

downward — вниз

upward — вверх

Наречия времени:

now — сейчас, теперь

before — до, перед, прежде

ever — когда-либо

never — никогда

always — всегда

often — часто

usually — обычно

seldom — редко

still — все-еще

already — уже

just — только-что, только

yet — еще, уже

sometimes — иногда

today — сегодня

tomorrow — завтра

yesterday — вчера

recently — недавно

lately — в последнее время

commonly — обычно

Наречия образа действия:

slowly — медленно

quickly — быстро

easily — легко

calmly — спокойно

brightly — ярко

hardly — с трудом, едва

Наречия меры и степени:

much — много, сильно

little — немного, мало

enough — достаточно

too — слишком

almost — уже, почти

very — очень

ТАБЛИЦА НЕПРАВИЛЬНЫХ ГЛАГОЛОВ

1 форма	2 форма	3 форма	4 форма	Перевод
to be	was/were	been	being	быть, находиться
to bear	bore	born	bearing	нести
to beat	beat	beaten	beating	бить
to begin	began	begun	beginning	начинать(ся)
to bend	bent	bent	bending	гнуть
to bind	bound	bound	binding	переплетать
to bite	bit	bitten/bit	biting	кусать
to blow	blew	blown	blowing	Дуть
to break	broke	broken	breaking	ломать
to bring	brought	brought	bringing	приносить
to build	built	built	building	строить
to buy	bought	bought	buying	покупать
to catch	caught	caught	catching	ловить
to choose	chosa.	chosen	choosing	выбирать
to cut	cut	cut	cutting	резать, рубить
to dive	dived/dove	dived	diving	нырять
to do	did	done	doing	делать
to draw	drew	drawn	drawing	рисовать, тащить
to drink	drank	drunk	drinking	пить
to drive	drove	driven	driving	вести
to eat	ate	eaten	eating	есть, кушать
to fall	fell	fallen	falling	падать
to feel	felt	felt	feeling	чувствовать
to feed	fed	fed	feeding	кормить
to fight	fought	fought	fighting	бороться, драться
to fly	flew	flown	flying	летать
to forbid	forbade	forbidden	forbidding	запрещать
to forget	forgot	forgotten	forgetting	забывать
to forgive	forgave	forgiven	forgiving	прощать
to freeze	froze	frozen	freezing	замораживать
to get	got	got	getting	получать, становиться
to give	gave	given	giving	давать
to go	went	gone	going'	идти, ехать
to grow	grew	grown	growing	расти, выращивать
to hang	hung	hung	hanging	висеть, вешать
to have	had	had	having	иметь
to hear	heard	heard	hearing	слышать
to hit	hit	hit	hitting	ударять
to hold	held	held	holding	держать
to hurt	hurt	hurt	hurting	повредить
to know	knew	known	knowing	знать
to lay	laid	laid	laying	накрывать
to lead	lead	lead	leading	вести
to leap	leapt/leaped	leapt/leaped	leaping	прыгать, скакать
to leave	left	left	leaving	покидать, оставлять
to lend	lent	lent	lending	давать взаймы
to let	let	let	letting	позволять
to lie	lay	lain	lying	лежать
to light	lit	lit	lighting	зажигать
to lose	lost	lost	losing	терять
to make	made	made	making	делать
to meet	met	met	meeting	встречать (ся)
to pay	paid	paid	paying	платить
to put	put	put	putting	класть, ставить
to read	read	read	reading	читать
to ride	rode	ridden	riding	ехать ^верхом)
to ring	rang	rung	ringing	звонить, звенеть
to rise	rose	risen	rising	поднимать
to run	ran	run	running	бежать
to say	said	said	saying	говорить, сказать
to see	saw	seen	seeing	видеть
to sell	sold	sold	selling	продавать
to send	sent	sent	sending	посьиать, отправлять
to shake	shook	shaken	shaking	трясти
to shine	shone	shone	shining	светить, сиять
to shoot	shot	shot	shooting	стрелять, снимать
to show	showed	shown	showing	показывать
to sing	sang .	sung	singing	петь
to sink	sank	sunk	sinking	тонуть
to sit	sat	sat	sitting	сидеть
to sleep	slept	slept	sleeping	спать
to speak	spoke	spoken	speaking	говорить, разговаривать
to spend	spent	spent	spending	тратить, проводить время
to stand	stood	stood	standing	стоять
to steal '	stole	stolen	stealing	воровать, украсть
to stick	stuck	stuck	sticking	прилипать
to strike	struck	struck	striking	бить, ударять
to swear	swore	sworn	swearing	клясться
to sweep	swept	swept	sweeping	мести, подметать
to swim	swam	swum	swimming	плавать
to take	took	taken	taking	взять, брать
to teach	taught	taught	teaching	учить, обучать
to tear	tore	torn	tearing	рвать
to tell	told	told	telling	сказать, сообщать
to think	thought	thought	thinking	думать
to throw	threw	thrown	throwing	бросать, кидать
to wake	woke	woken	waking	будить, просыпаться
to wear	wore	wakened	wearing	носить
to weep	wept	wept	weeping	плакать
to win	won	won	winning	побеждать, выигрывать
to write	wrote	written	writing	писать

Серия «Учебники и учебные пособия»

Агабекян Игорь Петрович

Английский для средних специальных

заведений

Ответственный

редактор Баранникова Е.

Редактор: Коваленко П.

Корректоры: Коваленко П.

Художник: Вартанов А.

Компьютерная

верстка: Петров А.

Лицензия ЛР № 065194 от 2 июня 1997 г.

Налоговая льгота — общероссийский классификатор продукции ОК-00-93, том 2; 953000 — книги, брошюры

Сдано в набор 06.11.2000 г. Подписано в печать 21.12.2000 г Формат 84х108'/₃₂. Бумага типографская. . Гарнитура Школьная. Тираж 10 000. Заказ № 47'в

Издательство «ФЕНИКС» . 344007, г. Ростов н/Д, пер. Соборный, 17

Отпечатано с готовых диапозитивов в ЗАО «Книга» 344019. г. Ростов-»а-Дону, ул. Советская, 57.

ENGLISH

Sunday, September 13, 2020

1 курс учебник англ.яз.

ОТ АВТОРА

ВВОДНЫЙ ФОНЕТИЧЕСКИЙ КУРС

ОСОБЕННОСТИ АНГЛИЙСКОГО ПРОИЗНОШЕНИЯ

ПРАВИЛА ЧТЕНИЯ

Основной курс

МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ

ЛИЧНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ

ПРИТЯЖАТЕЛЬНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ

УКАЗАТЕЛЬНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ

ПОРЯДОК СЛОВ В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИИ

ВОПРОСИТЕЛЬНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ

ВОЗВРАТНЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ

ЧИСЛИТЕЛЬНЫЕ

МНОЖЕСТВЕННОЕ ЧИСЛО СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНЫХ

ПРИТЯЖАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ПАДЕЖ СУЩЕСТВИТЕЛЬНЫХ

НЕОПРЕДЕЛЕННЫЙ И ОПРЕДЕЛЕННЫЙ АРТИКЛИ

ОБОРОТ there is / there are

СТЕПЕНИ СРАВНЕНИЯ ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫХ И НАРЕЧИЙ

ОСНОВНЫЕ ТИПЫ ВОПРОСОВ, ИСПОЛЬЗУЕМЫЕ В АНГЛИЙСКОМ ЯЗЫКЕ

НЕОПРЕДЕЛЕННЫЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЯ SOME, ANY, ОТРИЦАТЕЛЬНОЕ МЕСТОИМЕНИЕ N0 И ИХ ПРОИЗВОДНЫЕ

ВРЕМЕНА АНГЛИЙСКОГО ГЛАГОЛА

СОГЛАСОВАНИЕ ВРЕМЕН В ГЛАВНОМ И ПРИДАТОЧНОМ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯХ

СТРАДАТЕЛЬНЫЙ ЗАЛОГ

МОДАЛЬНЫЕ ГЛАГОЛЫ И ИХ ЗАМЕНИТЕЛИ

СЛОЖНОЕ ДОПОЛНЕНИЕ

ПРИДАТОЧНЫЕ ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИЯ УСЛОВИЯ И ВРЕМЕНИ, ДЕЙСТВИЕ КОТОРЫХ ОТНЕСЕНО К БУДУЩЕМУ

Приложение 1

Тексты для дополнительного чтения

Приложение 2

Дополнительные тексты для чтения

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